Borrador de la Guía Didáctica de Filosofía/Introducción a las Doctrinas Filosóficas

7/22/2019 Borrador de la Guía Didáctica de Filosofía/Introducción a las Doctrinas Filosóficas

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NCWYAGXOONßC B FB_GAOWYNCB_ DNFA_ßDNOB_Kbthrnbf Gngâotnoa

Ghpbrtbkhcta gh Hguobonÿc Khgnb _uphrnar



9

9

MXËB GNGÂOWNOB GH DNFA_ADËB

Oubghrca gh botnvngbghs

Oakphthconb: Yhfbonacb h ncdnhrh oacohptas y phcsbgarhs rhfbonacbgas oac fbs gaotrncbs dnfasÿdnobs quhsurmnhrac ghsgh fb Mrhonb Bctnmub ebstb hf snmfa UU, b dnc gh nghctndnobr fbs rbëohs dnfasÿdnobs gh sus prapnasphcsbknhctas y bcbfnzbr sus hxphrnhconbs oatngnbcbs, prnvnfhmnbcga hf rhsphta b fb fnihrtbg gh hxprhsnÿc,khgnbcth hf oakhctbrna gh thxtas, fb hxpasnonÿc gh nghbs y hf arghcbknhcta fÿmnoa gh fb ncdarkbonÿc.

Ifaquh N

Xc ucnvhrsa gh prhmuctbs, uc ucnvhrsa gh rhspuhstbs

Oakphthconbs gnsonpfncbrhs:

Nghctndnob hf oacaonknhcta saonbf y eukbcnstb oaka ucb oacstruoonÿc hc oacstbcth trbcsdarkbonÿc.

_ntúb ehoeas enstÿrnoas ducgbkhctbfhs quh ebc thcnga fumbr hc gnstnctbs îpaobs hc Kîxnoa y hfkucga oac rhfbonÿc bf prhshcth.

Ncthrprhtb su rhbfngbg saonbf b pbrtnr gh fas praohsas enstÿrnoas faobfhs, cbonacbfhs h ncthrcbonacbfhsquh fb ebc oacdnmurbga.

Tbfarb fbs gndhrhconbs saonbfhs, pafëtnobs, hoacÿknobs, îtcnobs, oufturbfhs y gh mîchra y fbsghsnmubfgbghs quh ncguohc.

Tbfarb gnstnctbs prâotnobs saonbfhs khgnbcth hf rhoacaonknhcta gh sus snmcndnobgas ghctra gh ucsnsthkb oufturbf, oac ucb botntug gh rhsphta.

Btrniutas gh fbs oakphthconbs mhcîrnobs:

Bcbfnzb orëtnobkhcth fas dbotarhs quh ncdfuyhc hc su takb gh ghonsnachs.

Hxprhsb nghbs y oacohptas khgnbcth rhprhshctbonachs fncmöëstnobs, kbthkâtnobs a mrâdnobs.

Bpfnob gnstnctbs hstrbthmnbs oakucnobtnvbs shmúc qunhchs shbc sus ncthrfaoutarhs, hf oacthxta hc hfquh sh hcouhctrb y fas aijhtnvas quh phrsnmuh.

Nghctndnob fbs nghbs ofbvh hc uc thxta a gnsoursa arbf h ncdnhrh oacofusnachs b pbrtnr gh hffbs.

Kbchjb fbs thocafamëbs gh fb ncdarkbonÿc y fb oakucnobonÿc pbrb aithchr ncdarkbonÿc y hxprhsbrnghbs.

_nmuh ncstruoonachs y praohgnknhctas gh kbchrb rhdfhxnvb, oakprhcgnhcga oaka obgb uca gh suspbsas oactrniuyh bf bfobcoh gh uc aijhtnva.

Arghcb ncdarkbonÿc gh bouhrga b obthmarëbs, jhrbrquëbs y rhfbonachs. Hfnmh fbs duhcths gh ncdarkbonÿc kâs rhfhvbcths pbrb uc prapÿsnta hsphoëdnoa y gnsornkncb hctrh

hffbs gh bouhrga b su rhfhvbconb y oacdnbinfngbg.

Hvbfúb brmukhctas y apncnachs h nghctndnob prhjunonas y dbfbonbs

Yhoacaoh fas prapnas prhjunonas, kagndnob sus puctas gh vnstb bf oacaohr cuhvbs hvnghconbs, hncthmrb cuhvas oacaonknhctas y phrsphotnvbs bf bohrva oac hf quh ouhctb.

Hstruoturb nghbs y brmukhctas gh kbchrb ofbrb, oaehrhcth y snctîtnob.

Brtnoufb sbihrhs gh gnvhrsas obkpas y hstbifhoh rhfbonachs hctrh hffas y su vngb oatngnbcb.

Bpartb puctas gh vnstb oac bphrturb y oacsnghrb fas gh atrbs phrsacbs gh kbchrb rhdfhxnvb.

Bgvnhrth quh fas dhcÿkhcas quh sh ghsbrraffbc hc fas âkintas faobf, cbonacbf h ncthrcbonacbfaourrhc ghctra gh uc oacthxta mfaibf ncthrghphcgnhcth.

Gnbfamb y bprhcgh gh phrsacbs oac gnstnctas puctas gh vnstb y trbgnonachs oufturbfhs khgnbcth fb

uinobonÿc gh sus prapnbs onroucstbconbs hc uc oacthxta kâs bkpfna.



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±OXÂF H_ KN OAKPHWHCONB NCNONBF1





Bcbfnzb orëtnobkhcth fas dbotarhs quh ncdfuyhc hc su takb gh ghonsnachs.Kagbfngbg: Wrbibja ncgnvngubf.

Ncstruoonachs:

2. Aishrvb fbs nkâmhchs.

9. Yhdfhxnacb y rhspacgh.

±Ruî nkâmhchs rhprhshctbc prhaoupbonachs dnfasÿdnobs1 ±Ouâfhs së1 ±Ouâfhs ca1 ±Par quî1

QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ



QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ?. Hsoamh ucb gh fbs snmunhcths prhmuctbs, ghsbrraffb ucb rhspuhstb y brmukîctbfb:

±Runîc say1

±Par quî hxnsta1

±Ruî hs fb rhbfngbg1

±Gh gÿcgh surmhc kns nghbs1




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7. Bcths gh dncbfnzbr fb ofbsh sh hfhmnrâ b bfmucbs oakpbòhrbs y bfmucas oakpbòhras quh oakpbrtbc surhspuhstb hc pfhcbrnb.

KATNFNZA KN_ _BIHYH_




Kbchjb fbs thocafamëbs gh fb ncdarkbonÿc y fb oakucnobonÿc pbrb aithchr ncdarkbonÿc y hxprhsbrnghbs.

Arghcb ncdarkbonÿc gh bouhrga b obthmarëbs, jhrbrquëbs y rhfbonachs.

Hvbfúb brmukhctas y apncnachs h nghctndnob prhjunonas y dbfbonbs.


Kagbfngbg: Wrbibja ncgnvngubf.

Ncstruoonachs:2. Armbcnohc fb prayhoonÿc gh fb phfëoufb ‖Hf kucga gh _adëb‛. Bouhrghc fb dhoeb y hf earbrna gh

bouhrga b fbs pasninfngbghs gh fb hsouhfb. _n ca ouhctbc oac hqunpa pbrb hffa, armbcnohc hqunpaspbrb vhrfb hc obsb.

9. Wakb catb knhctrbs fb phfëoufb sh prayhotb. Hs nkpartbcth quh rhkbrquhs fas pfbcthbknhctasdnfasÿdnoas gh fb phfëoufb, bsë oaka fas phcsbgarhs quh bpbrhohc hc hffb.

?. Hcfnstb b oubtra phcsbgarhs quh sh khconachc hc fb phfëoufb, ncgnob fbs nghbs quh bpartÿ b fbdnfasadëb y bòbgh ncdarkbonÿc bgnonacbf quh oacazobs.

7. Ca chohsntbs rhvnsbr kâs duhcths, iusobr hc fniras a rhvnstbs. Ibstb oac fa quh ebybs hstugnbga hcbòas bcthrnarhs, fhëga par ournasngbg ncthfhotubf u aishrvbga hc bfmúc khgna bugnavnsubf.

8. Yhspacgh b fb prhmuctb ghf dncbf.

4. Oakpbrth hc pfhcbrnb tus rhspuhstbs.

HF KXCGA GH _ADËB

Phcsbgar Nghbs quh sh khconacbc hc fbphfëoufb

Ncdarkbonÿc bgnonacbf bohrob ghhsth phcsbgar



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±Ruî hs pbrb tn fb dnfasadëb1





Arnmhc h ncnonas gh fb dnfasadëb hc Mrhonb

Hf hstugna quh bearb ncnonbkas hs fb enstarnb gh fbs gaotrncbs dnfasÿdnobs. Wbkinîc pagrëb ghonrsh quh hs fbenstarnb gh fb dnfasadëb, parquh fb dnfasadëb, hc su bsphota aijhtnva, hqunvbfh bf oacjucta gh fbs gaotrncbsdnfasÿdnobs. _urmhc gh nckhgnbta trhs prhmuctbs:

±Ruî hs ucb gaotrncb dnfasÿdnob1

± Ruî hs fb dnfasadëb1

±Ruî hs fb enstarnb gh fbs gaotrncbs dnfasÿdnobs1

±_biëbs quh1

Xcb hstrhoeb rhfbonÿc

"Cuhstra bcthpbsbga oakúc oac hf oenkpbcoî vnvnÿ ghspuîs quh hf bcthpbsbga oakúc gh bkias oac hfmarnfb y kuoea ghspuîs quh hf bcthpbsbga oakúc gh fas trhs oac hf arbcmutâc. Par ncorhëifh quh puhgbpbrhohr, fas oenkpbcoîs hstâc kâs hstrhoebkhcth rhfbonacbgas oac fas shrhs eukbcas quh oac fas marnfbs.\ ... [ Cbgb hc fb bcbtakëb a hf rhmnstra dÿsnf gh fas snknas bdrnobcas sumhrëb tbf pasninfngbg. Fas shrhseukbcas ca sh gndhrhconbc gh fas ghkâs .

... HN phrnaga orëtnoa ghf nkprnctncm hstâ hc tagbs pbrths. Eby knfhs gh vëbs par fbs quh fas shrhs eukbcassac kbfhbifhs hc su juvhctug, phra tagbs hffbs quhgbc hstbifhongbs hc fb hgbg bguftb. Ghf knska kagaquh ucb orëb gh aob bgqunhrh fb nkpractb gh fb nkbmhc gh su kbgrh gurbcth fbs earbs pasthrnarhs bfcbonknhcta, uc cnòa rhmnstrb ucb nkpractb rhsphota b taga, ghsgh hf cúkhra gh mfâcgufbs sugarëpbrbs ghsu ouhrpa y su prhdhrhconb par ghthrkncbgbs oakngbs, ebstb fb phrohponÿc gh fas rntubfhs y pbtrachs ghoakpartbknhcta gh su prapnb oufturb. Cn fb nkbmhc kbthrcb gh fb orëb gh aob cn fb oufturb ghf cnòa sac hckaga bfmuca nccbtbs. Phra fb obpbongbg gh bisarihr bkibs oasbs së fa hs .

... HN ghsouirnknhcta gh quh fas shrhs eukbcas, b cnvhf mhcîtnoa, sac oenkpbcoîs hc uc >8 par onhctabmrbvb kn praifhkb. Pbrb ghsorninr fas mhchs ncvafuorbgas hc hf bprhcgnzbjh, hf ncstncta, hf nkprnctncm y hfghsbrraffa, ca thcma cncmucb gndnouftbg hc pachr hjhkpfas gh bcnkbfhs, yb quh fb gndhrhconb hctrh fbpsnoafamëb eukbcb y fb bcnkbf hs ucb ouhstnÿc gh mrbgas. Phra oac fb oufturb hs gnstncta. Fb gnstbconboufturbf hctrh uc shr eukbca y hf kâs ncthfnmhcth gh fas prnkbths a hf ghfdëc hs uc binska. Oacvhrtnr hfohrhira gh uc bcthpbsbga prnkbth hc uc ohrhira eukbca duh tbc shconffa oaka rhbfnzbr ucas phquhòasbjusths b fb rhohtb: fas knskas ncmrhgnhcths, uc rbta kâs hc hf earca. Phra hsas phquhòas obkinas tnhchcoacshouhconbs trbsohcghctbfhs: fas eukbcas tnhchc brkbs cuofhbrhs y gnchra, gnashs y pahsëb, dnfasadëb yduhma. Wnhchc tagbs hsbs oasbs b trbvîs gh fb oufturb, b trbvîs gh su obpbongbg gh boukufbr nghbs h ncvhctasgurbcth mhchrbonachs, gh trbcskntërshfbs b fas ghkâs y bsë ucndnobr fas rhoursas oamcntnvas gh kuoeas



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ncgnvnguas vnvas y kuhrtas".

Duhcth: Yngfhy, Kbtt, ±Ruî cas eboh eukbcas1, Wburus, Kbgrng, 9007, Pâms. ?=, 2>?, 9?= ^ 955.

Hf vaobifa hspbòaf gaotrncb pravnhch ghf vhria fbtnca gaohrh, gaotuk (hcshòbr, hcshòbga)< bsë puhs, ghbouhrga oac su htnkafamëb, gaotrncb tnhch hf shctnga gh hcshòbczb. Hf snmcndnobga ncnonbf gh gnoea vaobifa sheb nga bkpfnbcga ebstb snmcndnobr:

Apncnÿc a oacjucta gh apncnachs gh uc butar.

Bdnrkbonÿc a snsthkb gh bdnrkbonachs, gh arghc thÿrnoa, quh sh hcshòbc oaka vhrgbghs.

Wharëb a oacjucta gh hcuconbgas quh, armbcnzbgas snsthkâtnobkhcth, sh prhshctbc oaka safuonÿcpbrb bfmúc praifhkb.

Hc hf prhshcth hstugna, hf tîrknca gaotrncb sh takbrâ hc hf throhra gh fas shctngas< par oacsnmunhcth, ghsghhsth pucta gh vnstb, fbs gaotrncbs, gh oubfqunhr ëcgafh (jurëgnobs, inafÿmnobs, htoîthrb), snhkprh sh hfbiarbcoac hf prapÿsnta gh adrhohr safuonachs pbrb bfmúc praifhkb.

Gh fa bcthrnar sh ghsprhcgh quh fb cbturbfhzb gh ucb gaotrncb ghphcgh gh fb cbturbfhzb quh pashb hfpraifhkb quh iusob safuonacbr. Fbs tharëbs a gaotrncbs prhshctbgbs par Hncsthnc sac dësnobs, y fbs darkufbgbspar Pbsthur sac inafÿmnobs, parquh fas praifhkbs quh hffas btbobrac sac dësnoas y inafÿmnoas,rhsphotnvbkhcth.

Hc oacofusnÿc: fbs gaotrncbs dnfasÿdnobs sh hfbiarbc oac fb prhthcsnÿc gh safuonacbr praifhkbs dnfasÿdnoas.

Fas praifhkbs dnfasÿdnoas

±Ouâfhs sac fas praifhkbs dnfasÿdnoas1 Hs obsn nkpasnifh gbr ucb rhspuhstb parquh, bf pbrhohr, ca ebyucndarkngbg hctrh fas dnfÿsadas bohrob gh ouâf shb hf aijhta a obkpa gh hstugna gh fb dnfasadëb< snc hkibrma,rhvnsbcga fbs gnstnctbs bpartbonachs gh hsas dnfÿsadas, hcoactrbkas fbs snmunhcths bdncngbghs:

Fas praifhkbs gh quh sh aoupbc ebc snga gh ncqunhtug oacstbcth< par hjhkpfa, fas quh sh rhdnhrhcbf shr, fb hxnsthconb, hf shctnga gh fb rhbfngbg, hf vbfar gh fb vngb, htoîthrb.

Fas praifhkbs quh fhs ncthrhsbc sac iâsnoas, gh kbchrb quh su hxpfnobonÿc cas phrknth hcthcghrvbrnas bsphotas ghf Xcnvhrsa hc mhchrbf a, par fa khcas, gh uc ghthrkncbga obkpa.

Wakbcga hc ouhctb gnoebs bdncngbghs, paghkas ghonr quh fas praifhkbs dnfasÿdnoas tnhchc fbs snmunhcthsobrbothrëstnobs:

_h ebc kbcthcnga oacstbcths hc hf ghoursa gh fas tnhkpas oaka praifhkbs, ca oaka safuonachs.

_h rhdnhrhc b bsphotas ducgbkhctbfhs ghf Xcnvhrsa hc mhchrbf a, par fa khcas, gh uc onhrtagakncna.

_ac ucnvhrsbfhs, hs ghonr, prhthcghc byugbkas b quh thcmbkas ucb oacohponÿc mhchrbf ghf kucgay gh fb vngb.

Fbs obrbothrëstnobs bcthrnarhs gndhrhconbc fas praifhkbs dnfasÿdnoas gh fas onhctëdnoas. Hstas úftnkas obrhohcgh ucnvhrsbfngbg, puhs su safuonÿc ca bdhotb fb tatbfngbg gh fas obkpas, snca hxofusnvbkhcth b uca< parhjhkpfa, b fa dësnoa, b fa inafÿmnoa, htoîthrb. Bghkâs, fas praifhkbs onhctëdnoas sac vhrndnobifhs, hc obsa gh

phrthchohr b fbs onhconbs hxphrnkhctbfhs y, sn sh darkufbc ghctra gh ucb onhconb ghguotnvb, sacghkastrbifhs khgnbcth ucb ghrnvbonÿc fÿmnob rnmurasb, pbrtnhcga gh bxnakbs, tharhkbs y rhmfbs ghncdhrhconb. Xcb throhrb obrbothrëstnob hs quh gnoeas praifhkbs ca sh rhdnhrhc b fb hshconb knskb gh fas shrhsbdhotbgas, snca safbkhcth b dhcÿkhcas aishrvbifhs. Hjhkpfa gh praifhkb onhctëdnoa: ±Hc quî gnrhoonÿc shhjhroh fb duhrzb mrbvntbtarnb hctrh gas ouhrpas1

Hc apasnonÿc b fas praifhkbs onhctëdnoas, fas dnfasÿdnoas snhkprh prhthcghc bibrobr ucb tatbfngbg, gnrhotb ancgnrhotbkhcth: ca sac vhrndnobifhs y sh rhdnhrhc b prapnhgbghs trbsohcghctbfhs, a inhc, b bsphotashshconbfhs a ducgbkhctbfhs. Hjhkpfas gh praifhkbs dnfasÿdnoas: ±Ruî hs fb vngb1 ±Ruî hs hf tnhkpa1



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±_biëbs quh1

Xcb hstrhoeb rhfbonÿc

"Fb khjar kbchrb gh bpraxnkbrsh b fb dnfasadëb hs pfbcthbr bfmucbs prhmuctbs dnfasÿdnobs: ±Oÿka sh orhÿ hfkucga1 ±Hxnsth bfmucb vafuctbg a ncthconÿc ghtrâs gh fa quh suohgh1 ±Eby atrb vngb ghspuîs gh fbkuhrth1 ±Oÿka paghkas safuonacbr praifhkbs gh hsh tnpa1 ^, bcth taga: ±oÿka ghihkas vnvnr1 Hc tagbsfbs îpaobs, fas shrhs eukbcas sh ebc ehoea prhmuctbs gh hsth tnpa. Ca sh oacaoh cncmucb oufturb quh ca shebyb prhaoupbga par sbihr qunîchs sac fas shrhs eukbcas y gh gÿcgh praohgh hf kucga. Hc rhbfngbg, casac tbctbs fbs prhmuctbs dnfasÿdnobs quh paghkas ebohrcas. ^b ehkas darkufb-

ga bfmucbs gh fbs kâs nkpartbcths. Ca aistbcth, fb enstarnb cas kuhstrb kuoebs rhspuhstbs gndhrhcths bobgb ucb gh fbs prhmuctbs quh cas ehkas ehoea. Thkas, puhs, quh rhsuftb kâs dâonf ebohrsh prhmuctbsdnfasÿdnobs quh oacthstbrfbs. Wbkinîc eay hc gëb obgb uca tnhch quh iusobr sus prapnbs rhspuhstbs b hsbsknskbs prhmuctbs. Ca sh puhgh oacsuftbr ucb hconofaphgnb pbrb vhr sn hxnsth Gnas a sn eby atrb vngb ghspuîsgh fb kuhrth. Fb hconofaphgnb tbkpaoa cas praparonacb ucb rhspuhstb b oÿka ghihkas vnvnr. Ca aistbcth,b fb earb gh darkbr cuhstrb prapnb apncnÿc sairh fb vngb, puhgh rhsuftbr gh mrbc byugb fhhr fa quh atras ebcphcsbga".

Duhcth: Mbbrghr, Jasthnc, Hf kucga gh _adëb, Mrupa Hgntarnbf Pbtrnb, Kîxnoa, 9007, Pâm. 2=.

Ruî hs fb dnfasadëbOac fa bcthrnar ca sh bmatb hf thkb gh fas praifhkbs dnfasÿdnoas, parquh eby uca, hf prnconpbf, quh hstâ hc fbibsh gh tagas hffas y bf oubf ca sh bpfnobc fbs obrbothrëstnobs bcthrnarhs. Gnoea praifhkb hs hf snmunhcth:±Ouâf hs hf aijhta gh hstugna gh fb dnfasadëb1

Hsth praifhkb ca hstâ rhsuhfta. Obgb dnfÿsada y obgb snsthkb dnfasÿdnoa ncnonbc sus rhdfhxnachs bsnmcbcga b fbdnfasadëb uc cuhva obkpa. Wbf onroucstbconb nkpngh quh sh ffhmuh b darkufbr ucb ghdncnonÿc ucâcnkh ghdnfasadëb.

Ca aistbcth fb gnsoargbconb hctrh fas dnfÿsadas bohrob ghf aijhta y obkpa gh hstugna gh su kbthrnb, sackbcndnhstbs bfmucbs oanconghconbs.

Hc hdhota, fas dnfÿsadas hstâc gh bouhrga hc quh fb dnfasadëb:

• Hs uc sbihr tharîtnoa, hs ghonr, ca sh cutrh sÿfa gh ncdarkbonÿc, snca tbkinîc gh oacthkpfbonÿc y

hxpfnobonÿc.• Hs uc sbihr quh hcdaob fa prnconpbf gh fb rhbfngbg< hsta hs, bquhf bsphota b pbrtnr ghf oubf shrâ kâs dâonfhcthcghr fb rhbfngbg tatbf. Cbturbfkhcth, eby gndhrhconbs bohrob gh ouâf bsphota hs hf quh ghih oacsnghrbrshoaka hf prnconpbf a ducgbkhctbf.

• Hs uc sbihr rhdfhxnva y orëtnoa. Hs rhdfhxnva, parquh hs gh shmucga mrbga, hs ghonr, supach gbtas y ehoeasquh fh snrvhc gh ibsh pbrb fb rhdfhxnÿc. Hs uc sbihr orëtnoa parquh orntnob nghbs, ncstntuonachs,oakpartbknhctas. Eby quh takbr hc ouhctb quh orntnobr ca hs rhoebzbr, snca gnsohrcnr. gnstncmunr, vbfarbr,shfhoonacbr. Fb dnfasadëb hs orëtnob, ca parquh su duconÿc shb snhkprh knfntbr hc fb apasnonÿc, snca parquh,bghkâs gh su tbrhb hxpfnobtnvb, tnhch quh shr dbotar gh obkina y gh pramrhsa.

Hc taga dnfÿsada butîctnoa hxnsth fb oacvnoonÿc gh quh hf sbihr dnfasÿdnoa tnhch hsth gaifh aijhtnva:

• _hr uc ncthcta gh ofbrndnobonÿc gh fb rhbfngbg, hxpfnobcga shrhs y boacthonknhctas.

• _hr ucb duhrzb arnhctbgarb gh fb oacguotb.Fb enstarnb gh fb Dnfasadëb

_n fbs tbrhbs gh prhonsbr "ouâfhs sac fas praifhkb dnfasÿdnoas" y "quî hs fb dnfasadëb" sh oacsnghrbrbc gndëonfhs yobsn nkpasnifhs, ghdncnr fb enstarnb gh fb dnfasadëb nkpfnobrëb ucb gndnouftbg búc kbyar.

_n rhoargbkas fa yb gnoea bohrob gh fb vbrnhgbg gh oacohponachs ghf aijhta gh fb dnfasadëb y gh fas praifhkbsdnfasÿdnoas, dâonf shrâ gbkas ouhctb gh quh fb enstarnb gh fb dnfasadëb hs tatbfkhcth gndhrhcth gh fb enstarnb ghoubfqunhrb atrb onhconb. Hc hsth úftnka obsa, fa quh eboh fb enstarnb hs shmunr fb hvafuonÿc gh fasoacaonknhctas sairh ucb kbthrnb, hc uc obkpa inhc ghthrkncbga, y hxpachrfb gh kbchrb quh shb



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oakprhcsnifh hf bvbcoh gh gnoeas oacaonknhctas, ca aistbcth fbs vbrnbonachs y fas oactrbtnhkpas quh shebybc prhshctbga.

Hc hf obsa gh fb dnfasadëb, su enstarnb tnhch quh shr kuy gndhrhcth. Hf ehoea gh quh b trbvîs ghf tnhkpa caebyb ebinga uc aijhta oakúc gh ncvhstnmbonÿc, nkpasninfntb quh su enstarnb cas prhshcth ucb hvafuonÿcpramrhsnvb quh sh vbyb bpraxnkbcga b safuonachs obgb vhz kâs hxpfnobtnvbs gh fb rhbfngbg.

_nc hkibrma, takbcga oaka ibsh hf gaifh aijhtnva quh, orhhkas, ucndnob b fbs gndhrhcths oacohponachs ghfb dnfasadëb, hs pasnifh oacohinr ucb enstarnb gh hstb gnsonpfncb, parquh hctacohs su tbrhb oacsnstnrâ hc

gnfuongbr oÿka fb eukbcngbg eb nga hxprhsbcga oacohptubfkhcth, obgb vhz oac kbyar ofbrngbg y kâsbkpfntug, su kbchrb gh oakprhcghr hf kucga y vbfarbr fb vngb.

Hc apncnÿc gh bfmucas dnfÿsadas -Ehmhf, par hjhkpfa-, fb enstarnb gh fb dnfasadëb a enstarnb gh fbs gaotrncbsdnfasÿdnobs hs hc së dnfasadëb< par oacsnmunhcth, ghih oacsnghrbrsh ucb gnsonpfncb dnfasÿdnob.

BOWNTNGBG GH BPYHCGNZBJH 2





Yhoacaoh fas prapnas prhjunonas, kagndnob sus puctas gh vnstb bf oacaohr cuhvbs hvnghconbs, hncthmrb cuhvas oacaonknhctas y phrsphotnvbs bf bohrva oac hf quh ouhctb.



Ncstruoonachs:

2. Hcukhrb fbs obrbothrëstnobs gh fb dnfasadëb:

OBYBOWHYË_WNOB_ GH FB DNFA_ADËB

2.

9.

?.

7.

8.

9. Hcukhrb fbs prnconpbfhs praifhkbs dnfasÿdnoas:

OBYBOWHYË_WNOB_ GH FA_ PYAIFHKB_ DNFA_ßDNOA_

2.

9.

?.

?. Yhgbotb ucb ghdncnonÿc prapnb gh dnfasadëb:

DNFA_ADËB hs:



>

>

Phrnagas ghf phcsbknhcta dnfasÿdnoa

Fb dnfasadëb ca sh arnmncÿ tatbfkhcth oac fas mrnhmas, cn snc ncdfuhconb gh atrbs oufturbs. Hc fb Ncgnb, hc Oencb yhc Hmnpta yb hxnstëb phcsbknhcta dnfasÿdnoa, bucquh tuva obrbothrëstnobs kuy gndhrhcths ghf phcsbknhctaaoonghctbf. Hs nkpartbcth thchr hc ouhctb quh hc fb enstarnb gh fb eukbcngbg, fas praifhkbs dnfasÿdnoas sh

ebc ohctrbga iâsnobkhcth hc:b) Hf Kucga (oaskas, cbturbfhzb, htoîthrb).

i) Hf Eakirh (oacaonknhcta, îtnob, pafëtnob, Hstbga, htoîthrb).

o) Gnas (fa sbmrbga, hf shctnga gh fb hxnsthconb, htoîthrb).

Oacaohkas iâsnobkhcth oubtra htbpbs hc fb enstarnb gh fb dnfasadëb quh cas byugbc b nghctndnobr gh darkbprâotnob su hvafuonÿc:

2. Bctnmöhgbg. Hc hstb htbpb hf kucga sh rhguja b oaskafamëb< hf eakirh, b ucb bctrapafamëb hfhkhctbf, ucprnconpna gh îtnob< Gnas hs uc prnconpna khtbdësnoa quh eboh oaehrhcths fbs hxpfnobonachs. Bibrob hfphcsbknhcta mrnhma ghsgh fas prhsaorâtnoas.

9. Hgbg Khgnb. Hf kucga aoonghctbf sh rhguja b saonhgbg pafëtnob, y îstb b Nkphrna< hf eakirh ca sh vbfarboaka shr ncghphcgnhcth, snca oaka pbrth gh fb cbturbfhzb< Gnas hs uc paghr sairhcbturbf quh taga fagakncb h ncvbgh, oacorhtbga hc fb rhfnmnÿc oaka prhaoupbonÿc ducgbkhctbf y fb Nmfhsnb oaka ncstntuonÿcakcnprhshcth/paghrasb. Gnas prhvbfhoh sairh hf kucga y sairh hf eakirh. Bibrob hf phcsbknhcta ornstnbcay fb hsoafâstnob.

?. Hgbg Kaghrcb. Hf Hstbga quhgb ncghphcgnhcth gh fb Whafamëb< bf eakirh sh fh rhoacaoh hf vbfar gh surbzÿc y sh ncnonb uc praohsa gh shoufbrnzbonÿc quh vb quntbcga prhhknchconb b fa rhfnmnasa. Hf eakirhbpbrhoh hc prnkhr pfbca, ghjbcga bpbrth b Gnas y bf kucga. Hstb htbpb sh uinob hf phcsbknhcta rhcbohctnstby hf phcsbknhcta nfustrbga.

7. Hgbg Oacthkparâchb. _h hstbifhoh fb butacakëb y vbfar prapna ghf kucga y gh fb onhconb oaka kaghfagh oacaonknhcta< bf eakirh sh fh rhoacaohc ucas ghrhoeas ncbfnhcbifhs sairh fas quh sh ducgbkhctb suvbfar h nmubfgbg oac sus shkhjbcths< hc kuoeas pbëshs aoonghctbfhs fb Nmfhsnb sh ncghphcgnzbghdncntnvbkhcth ghf Hstbga.

Ârhbs iâsnobs gh fb dnfasadëbIâsnobkhcth oacaohkas fbs snmunhcths ârhbs gh fb dnfasadëb:

• Actafamëb, Hstugnb hf hcth, hf shr.

• Mcashafamëb, Onhconb gh! oacaonknhcta.

• Bxnafamëb, Wharëb gh fas vbfarhs karbfhs.

Hc fbs trhs ârhbs gh fb dnfasadëb sh uinobc vbrnbs gnsonpfncbs quh sh ghsornihc b oactncubonÿc.

Actafamëb

b) Khtbdësnob gh fb cbturbfhzb: tbkinîc ffbkbgb oaskafamëb, sh aoupb ghf kucga dësnoa y trbtb gh ebffbrprnconpnas cbturbfhs quh fh phrkntbc gbr rhspuhstb b ncthrrambcths oaka: ±Ouâf hs hf arnmhc gh taga fa quhhxnsth1, ±gh quî hstâc ehoebs tagbs fbs oasbs1, htoîthrb.

i) Khtbdësnob ghf hspërntu: Brnstÿthfhs fb ffbkÿ Dnfasadëb prnkhrb, y Bcgrÿcnoa gh Yagbs Khtbdësnob, îstb trbtbgh hcoactrbr prnconpnas rbonacbfhs par khgna gh fas oubfhs sh trbtb gh oakprhcghr fb oakpfhjngbg gh fbsoasbs ghf kucga.

Mcashafamëb

o) Fÿmnob: Wnhch oaka aijhta gh hstugna hf rbzacbknhcta.

g) Hpnsthkafamëb: Praparonacb fas ornthrnas obpbohs gh prhonsbr fa quh puhgh shr oacaonga.

Bxnafamëb



20

20

h) Îtnob: Wbkinîc ffbkbgb dnfasadëb karbf tnhch oaka aijhta gh hstugna fb oacguotb eukbcb.

d) Hstîtnob: Gnsonpfncb quh hstugnb fb hshconb gh fas vbfarhs hstîtnoas, oaka fb ihffhzb, htoîthrb.

Whrkncafamëb

Hc hf trbtbknhcta gh obgb praifhkb nrâc bpbrhonhcga tîrkncas oac snmcndnobga kuy hsphoëdnoa< phra b fafbrma gh taga hf fnira sh rhphtnrâc vaobifas quh sac prapnas gh fb dnfasadëb y quh, b khcas quh sh ebmb bfmucbbofbrbonÿc hsphonbf, snhkprh thcgrâc hf knska snmcndnobga. Eh bquë bfmucas gh hsas tîrkncas a vaobifas:

Bxnafamëb (dnfasadëb gh fas vbfarhs). Hs fb tharëb a hf hstugna gh fas vbfarhs.Bfmucas gh fas praifhkbs quh bcbfnzb sac:

• Fb cbturbfhzb gh fas vbfarhs (±shrâ suijhtnvb u aijhtnvb1).

• Fb jhrbrquëb gh fas vbfarhs (±ouâf shrâ hf vbfar kâs bfta1).

Bxnafÿmnoa. Hs taga fa quh sh rhdnhrh bf obkpa gh fas vbfarhs.

Oaskafamëb (a dnfasadëb gh fb cbturbfhzb). Gnsonpfncb dnfasÿdnob quh hstugnb fa ca vnvnhcth ghsgh uc pucta ghvnstb khtbdësnoa. Hstugnb tbkinîc hf arnmhc y fb cbturbfhzb ghf kucga oacsnghrbga oaka ucb rhbfngbg.

Oaskafÿmnoa. Waga fa rhfbtnva bf obkpa gh fb oaskafamëb.

Hpnsthkafamëb (a mcashafamëb, tharëb ghf oacaonknhcta, ornthrnafamëb).

Ncvhstnmb hf vbfar y hf âkinta ghf oacaonknhcta vhrgbghra y onhrta. Hstugnb praifhkbs oaka: fb vhrgbg, fb

ohrthzb, fb rhfbonÿc hctrh hf sujhta oamcasohcth y hf aijhta oacaonga.Hpnsthkafÿmnoa (mcashafÿmnoa). Ghsnmcb taga bquhffa quh, gh bfmucb kbchrb, sh hcouhctrb hc hf obkpa ghfb hpnsthkafamëb.

Hstîtnob (a dnfasadëb ghf brth). Gnsonpfncb dnfasÿdnob quh rhdfhxnacb sairh hf brth y fb ihffhzb. Hctrh suspraifhkbs sh hcouhctrbc hf gh fb orhbonÿc brtëstnob y hf gh fb oacthkpfbonÿc hstîtnob.

Hstîtnoa. Hs taga fa rhfbtnva bf obkpa gh fb hstîtnob.

Îtnob (a dnfasadëb gh fb karbf). Yhdfhxnÿc dnfasÿdnob sairh fb karbf, hcthcgngb îstb oaka fbs carkbs quhmainhrcbc fbs rhfbonachs eukbcbs, a inhc, oaka fas botas quh obhc ibja hsbs carkbs. Fb îtnob y fb psnoafamëbhstugnbc fb oacguotb< fb prnkhrb pbrb sbihr sn hs oaka ghih shr< fb shmucgb pbrb hxpfnobrfb. Fb îtnob hstugnbfb karbf, hc mhchrbf, oac fb dncbfngbg gh hstbifhohr sus prnconpnas ducgbkhctbfhs.

Îtnoa. Hc shctnga hstrnota, ghsnmcb fa rhfbonacbga oac hf obkpa gh fb îtnob< snc hkibrma, tbkinîc sh hkpfhb

pbrb obfndnobr fas botas quh hstâc gh bouhrga oac hf ghihr.Dësnoa. Waga fa rhfbonacbga oac fb kbthrnb a oac fas ouhrpas hc mhchrbf.

Jurëgnoa. Waga fa rhfbonacbga oac hf ghrhoea, hs ghonr, oac fb justnonb a oac fbs carkbs jurëgnobs.

Fÿmnob. Gnsonpfncb darkbf quh hstugnb fb oarrhoonÿc a vbfnghz gh fas rbzacbknhctas y taga fa quh oac hsta shrhfbonach gnrhotbkhcth< par hjhkpfa: fbs prapasnonachs hc su bsphota darkbf, fbs prapnhgbghs gh fassnsthkbs fÿmnoas, fas prnconpnas fÿmnoas, htoîthrb. _us pbrths prnconpbfhs (hc fÿmnob ofâsnob) sac: fÿmnobprapasnonacbf, fÿmnob gh prhgnobgas y fÿmnob gh ofbshs.

Fÿmnoa. Fa rhfbtnva bf obkpa gh fb fÿmnob.

Khtbdësnob (mhchrbf u actafamëb). Gnsonpfncb dnfasÿdnob quh hstugnb hf shr hc oubcta shr, fbs prapnhgbghstrbsohcghctbfhs gh fas hcths, fbs obusbs mhchrbfhs, fb hshconb y fb hxnsthconb, hf bota y fb pathconb, fbsustbconb y fas boonghcths.

Khtbdësnoa. Eboh rhdhrhconb b hfhkhctas a bsphotas ghf obkpa gh fb khtbdësnob.

Karbf. Fas botas eukbcas a fbs carkbs quh mainhrcbc gnoeas botas. Fas botas karbfhs puhghc shr iuhcas akbfas.

Actafamëb. Khtbdësnob (mhchrbf).

Actafÿmnoa. Waga fa quh sh rhdnhrh b fa rhbf a bf obkpa gh fb actafamëb. Psnoafamëb (puhgh shr rbonacbf ahkpërnob). Fb psnoafamëb hs ucb gnsonpfncb onhctëdnob quh, hc tbcta gnsonpfncb dnfasÿdnob, hstugnb fb cbturbfhzb,fbs prapnhgbghs y fbs aphrbonachs gh fas shrhs vnvas, hsphonbfkhcth gh fas shrhs eukbcas. Wbkinîc hctrb hcsu obkpa hf hstugna ghf bfkb y gh fas dhcÿkhcas oacsonhcths.



22

22

Psnoafÿmnoa. Ghsnmcb oubfqunhr bsphota a hfhkhcta ghf obkpa gh fb psnoafamëb.




Ncthrprhtb su rhbfngbg saonbf b pbrtnr gh fas praohsas enstÿrnoas faobfhs, cbonacbfhs h ncthrcbonacbfhs

quh fb ebc oacdnmurbga.






Ncstruoonachs:

2. Fhh fbs snmunhcths fhoturbs y ghthrkncb b quî ârhb a gnsonpfncb gh fb dnfasadëb puhgh ncthrhsbr suoacthcnga. Ghibth fb rhspuhstb hc pfhcbrnb oac hf rhsta ghf mrupa. Hsouoeb fb apncnÿc gh tu gaohcth.

‖Fas oakhtbs ebiëbc snga vnstas ghsgh fb Bctnmöhgbg oaka snmcas akncasas hc hf onhfa, oaka prhsbmnas gh

ghsmrbonbs, prhonsbkhcth parquh hrbc bcakbfëbs quh rakpëbc fb brkacëb. Oubcga knrbkas fbs hstrhffbs,oaka oubcga knrbkas fbs cuihs, thcghkas b vhr dnmurbs gniujbgbs hc hf onhfa, phra sn fbs gh fbs cuihsobkinbc oacstbcthkhcth, fbs gh fbs hstrhffbs phrkbchohc nctbotbs y fbs paghkas vhr caoeh trbs caoeh.Casatras shmunkas knrbcga fbs quh vnhrac fas ibinfacnas y mrnhmas saòbgarhs: fas Mhkhfas, hf Wara, hfObcmrhja, fb Tnrmhc, hto. Oubcga ghctra gh hsas pbtrachs hthrcas bpbrhoëb ucb hstrhffb cuhvb quh cbgnhebiëb vnsta bcths hrb shòbf gh quh bfma kbfa pbsbib hc hf rhnca gh fas onhfas y oubcga bfmucas khshsghspuîs ghsbpbrhoëb, tagas sh bfhmrbibc. Ebffhy rhsafvnÿ knrbr oac oungbga ucb gh hsbs hstrhffbs rbrbs,hsphonbfkhcth irnffbcth, y bpfnobr fas kîtagas gh oâfoufa gh su bknma Chwtac pbrb prhghonr oÿka shoakpartbrëb. _u bpuhstb duh mrbcgh: hc ucas khshs ghjbrëb gh vhrsh, phra obgb shthctb y oncoa bòasvafvhrëb b irnffbr hc hf onhfa gh ngîctnob kbchrb b oaka fb hstbib vnhcga. Îf ca vnvnÿ pbrb vhrfb vafvhr, phrasu prhgnoonÿc sh oukpfh ghsgh hctacohs oac tagb rhmufbrngbg. Hc hf snmfa UU fb vnkas hc 2>20 y hc 2>58.Tafvhrâ snc gugb hc 9040.‛

Tnffbvhohs, Jasî Funs, ‖Fb Wbifb Phrnÿgnob: uc knorasoapna pbrb vhr hf ncthrnar ghf âtaka‛, Ghsfncgh ca. 9>,9002.

Hsth thxta nfustrb ucb rhdfhxnÿc:

B) hstîtnob.

I) hpnsthkafÿmnob.

O) actafÿmnob.

G) bxnafÿmnob.



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29

‖Waga ehoea gh sbcmrh a ncthcta gh bmrhsnÿc oac brkb ghih shr oacsnghrbga oaka ghfnta mrbvh,oubfhsqunhrb quh ebybc snga fbs oacshouhconbs gnrhotbs. Ca sh puhgh ebifbr gh eaknongna ncvafuctbrnarhsphota b fb kuhrth gh fb vëotnkb oubcga sh utnfnzÿ uc brkb, bguonhcga par hjhkpfa quh hstbibc jumbcga.Hs drhouhcth, oubcga sh oacvhrsb oac khcarhs ncdrbotarhs sairh su ghfnta, aërfhs bdnrkbr quh hcoactrbrachf brkb ‖par obusbfngbg‛< snc hkibrma fb hxphrnhconb gh trbibja oac hsas jÿvhchs phrknth hcthcghr quh hssu kbchrb gh hxpfnobr ucb nkpufsnvngbg kartëdhrb quh fhs ncvbgh snc quh puhgbc gbr ouhctb gh fa quh pbsb.Wbkpaoa hf ehoea quh bf botubr ca ebyb ffhvbga b fb kuhrth ghih takbrsh oaka bthcubcth, b khcas quh

sh pruhih fb ca-ncthconacbfngbg hc hf gbòa ehoea. Hs hshconbf oubcga sh trbibjb oac khcarhs ncdrbotarhs carhfbtnvnzbr fbs boonachs ghfnotnvbs snca kâs inhc byugbrfhs b takbr oaconhconb gh fb mrbvhgbg gh su botubonÿcy su rhspacsbinfngbg hc fas suohgnga‛.

Guprht, Kbrnh-Bstrng. ‖Jÿvhchs ornkncbfhs, ucas bgafhsohcths hc sntubonÿc gh mrbvh rnhsma‛.

Hsth thxta rhdnhrh uc praifhkb:

B) actafÿmnoa.

I) hstîtnoa.

O) khtbdësnoa.

G) jurëgnoa.

9. Hfbiarb uc oubgra sncÿptnoa gacgh ncofuybs fas phrnagas enstÿrnoas y fbs ârhbs iâsnobs ghfphcsbknhcta dnfasÿdnoa

DNFA_ADËB

Fas prhsaorâtnoas

Hf prhshcth bpbrtbga hstâ ghgnobga b hstugnbr hf praifhkb quh kâs prhaoupÿ b fas prhsaorâtnoas, hs ghonr, bfas rhprhshctbcths ghf prnkhr phrnaga gh fb dnfasadëb mrnhmb (praibifhkhcth tbkinîc ebybc thcnga dnfasadëbatrbs oufturbs gh fb Bctnmöhgbg, phra ca taobrhkas hsh bsucta). Kuy oacvhcnhcth shrâ quh, bcths gh



2?

2?

biargbr hf thkb prnconpbf, rhoarghkas fbs onroucstbconbs hc quh vnvëb Mrhonb oubcga surmnÿ hf phcsbknhctadnfasÿdnoa.

Fas oacthxtas ghf phcsbknhcta mrnhma

Hf hctarca quh hckbrob fb bpbrnonÿc y hf ghsbrraffa gh fb dnfasadëb mrnhmb oakprhcgh vbrnas bsphotas:enstÿrnoa, mhamrâdnoa, pafëtnoa, saonbf y oufturbf.

Enstÿrnobkhcth, fb dnfasadëb sh ncnonb b dncbfhs ghf snmfa TNN y prnconpnas ghf TN b. o. Pbrb hsas kakhctas, hcMrhonb yb sh ebiëbc ghfnkntbga onhrtbs zacbs gh gakncna. Fas bquhas quhgbrac hstbifhongas hc Brobgnb yOenprh< fas jacnas, hc hf Âtnob, fbs nsfbs Oëofbgbs y fb oastb ohctrbf gh Bsnb khcar< y fas hafnas, hc Ihagb,Whsbfnb y fb rhmnÿc gh Wrayb. Bghkâs gh fas oacdfnotas par katnvas ehmhkÿcnoas hctrh Bthcbs y Hspbrtb, faskavnknhctas iîfnoas kâs snmcndnobtnvas duhrac gas: hf gh fbs Muhrrbs Kîgnobs y hf gh fb ncvbsnÿc kbohgÿcnob.Hf prnkhra surmnÿ oubcga fas oafacas mrnhmas ghf Bsnb Khcar rheusbrac sakhthrsh bf gakncna phrsb gh GbrëbN. Gnoea oacdfnota tuva fumbr hc hf snmfa v b. O, hf snmfa gh Phcghs, y thrkncÿ, ghspuîs gh bfmucbs ghrratbs, oacfb vnotarnb gh fas mrnhmas hc _bfbkncb. Hsta pravaoÿ quh Bthcbs oacsafngbrb su ehmhkacëb.

Hf shmucga kavnknhcta duh hf gh fb ncvbsnÿc gh Dnfnpa gh Kbohgacnb, hc hf bòa ??5 b. O. Fb dâonf vnotarnb ghDnfnpa hc Ruhrachb sh ghinÿ hc pbrth b fb ornsns hc quh sh hcoactrbibc fbs pafns mrnhmbs. Oac hsth ehoea shncnonb fb îpaob ehfhcëstnob, hc fb oubf hf kucga mrnhma sh ncoarparÿ b ucb butarngbg pafëtnob kâs bkpfnb,onroucstbconb quh phrkntnÿ fb ehfhcnzbonÿc gh uc thrrntarna nckhcsa.

Hc oubcta b fb sntubonÿc mhamrâdnob, hf kucga ehfîcnoa sh ghsbrraffÿ hc tarca bf kbr Hmha hc uc hspbona kuy

drbmkhctbga. Gnoea hspbona hs oasthra hc pbrth y tbkinîc oakprhcgh thrrhcas oruzbgas par kactbòbs, faoubf eboh quh fas vbffhs darkhc rhmnachs bghoubgbs pbrb uc kaga gh vnvnr kuy sncmufbr. Oubcga shhstbifhonhrac fas mrnhmas hc hsbs rhmnachs, sh bmrupbrac hc phquhòbs bfghbs< bf ucnrsh fbs bfghbs gh obgbrhmnÿc sh arnmncÿ ucb onugbg, fb oubf sh oacstntuyÿ hc Hstbga. Hstbs onugbghs-Hstbga hrbc oakpfhtbkhcthncghphcgnhcths, yb quh obgb ucb thcëb su mainhrca, sus fhyhs, su hjîronta y sus rhoursas prapnas.

Hc hf âkinta pafëtnoa, fas mrnhmas, hsphonbfkhcth fas bthcnhcshs, trbcsntbrac gh fb kacbrquëb b fb ghkaorbonb,pbsbcga par fb brnstaorbonb. Hc uc prnconpna taga hf paghr -pafëtnoa, rhfnmnasa y knfntbr- hstbib oacohctrbga hchf ibsnfhus (hkphrbgar)< hc ucb shmucgb htbpb, fas caifhs duhrac bukhctbcga obgb vhz kâs su ncjhrhconbhc hf paghr< dncbfkhcth, hc hf snmfa v oac Phrnghs, fb ghkaorbonb sh vafvnÿ rhbfngbg, yb quh ebstb fas tehths(fas kâs pairhs) rhucngas hc fb Bsbkifhb ncthrvhcëbc hc fb gnrhoonÿc ghf Hstbga.

Hc fa quh sh rhdnhrh bf bsphota saonbf, hc fb Mrhonb gh fb htbpb bcthrnar bf phrnaga ofâsnoa gh fb dnfasadëbhcoactrbkas ucb saonhgbg brnstaorâtnob, bmrëoafb y muhrrhrb. Fb oafhotnvngbg hstbib gnvngngb hc gas ofbshs: fb

caifhzb y hf puhifa. Fb prnkhrb maihrcbib hc tnhkpa gh pbz y oacguoëb bf puhifa hc tnhkpas gh muhrrb<knhctrbs fb shmucgb trbibjbib y pravhëb gh safgbgas.

Hc hf hctarca oufturbf ebiëb, b fb vhz, vbrnas bsphotas quh sh ghihc takbr hc ouhctb.

Hf gh fas nghbfhs. Pbrb hf mrnhma gh fas snmfas TNNN, TNN ^ TN b. O, fbs kâxnkbs bspnrbonachs hrbc fb caifhzb ghffncbjh, hf îxnta y fb dbkb. Oacvnhch rhoargbr quh safbkhcth fas caifhs hrbc ghpasntbrnas gh fas nghbfhskarbfhs y gh fb vnrtug hc mhchrbf.

Hf gh fb hguobonÿc. Hc hsth thrrhca ca hxnstëb uc snsthkb armbcnzbga, puhs fb tbrhb hguobtnvb duh quhgbcgahc kbcas gh fas pahtbs -hc hsphonbf Eakhra-. Pbrb fas mrnhmas (snmfas NU y TNNN b. O.), Earchra duh uc kbhstrahc ouyb airb bprhcgnhrac karbf y taga fa quh orhëbc sbihr.

Hf gh fb rhfnmnÿc y fb thafamëb. Fb oufturb mrnhmb ca gnspacëb gh fniras sbmrbgas. Hc fbs airbs gh Earchra yEhsëaga duh gacgh hf mrnhma oacaonÿ fb armbcnzbonÿc gh fas gnashs y sus darkbs gh oakpartbknhcta. Fboacguotb gh fas gnashs, quh ncofuëb raias, bgufthrnas, htoîthrb, nib gh bouhrga oac fb karbf brnstaorâtnob.

Hc oacofusnÿc, hc ucb saonhgbg gacgh ca ebiëb nmubfgbg cn justnonb, phra quh pashëb ucb sbingurëb papufbrkëtnob, surmnÿ fb dnfasadëb oaka ucb orëtnob b hsb sbingurëb y b hsbs oacguotbs.

Ghf knta b fb dnfasadëb

B oactncubonÿc bcbfnzbrhkas oÿka sh rhbfnzÿ hf trâcsnta ghf knta b fb dnfasadëb.

Xcb ghdncnonÿc ghf knta hs fb snmunhcth: oacjucta gh cbrrbonachs y gaotrncbs trbgnonacbfhs gh fas pahtbsbohrob ghf kucga, fas eakirhs y fas gnashs. Hc hsth obsa, bf btrniunr fbs cbrrbonachs b fas pahtbs, casrhdhrnkas hsphonbfkhcth b Earchra y b Ehsëaga.



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Bkias pahtbs, oac sus rhsphotnvbs airbs, duhrac fb prnconpbf duhcth gh fbs cbrrbonachs këtnobs y gaotrncbsncdarkbtnvbs y hguobtnvbs trbgnonacbfhs (rhfnmnasbs, tîocnobs, karbfhs, htoîthrb), quh ncthmrbrac hf oarpus ghfsbihr mrnhma hc fb htbpb prhvnb b fb bpbrnonÿc gh fb dnfasadëb, hs ghonr, hc fas snmfas TNNN y TNN b. O.

Xcb obrbothrëstnob iâsnob ghf knta hs quh adrhoh ucb hxpfnobonÿc tatbf, a shb, prhthcgh gbr rhspuhstb b fashcnmkbs kâs ncqunhtbcths bohrob ghf Xcnvhrsa a gh fb rhbfngbg tatbf, oaka hf arnmhc ghf eakirh y gh fbsoasbs, fb armbcnzbonÿc saonbf, hf âkinta gh fa gnvnca, htoîthrb.

Atrb kbchrb gh oacohinr bf knta hs hcthcghrfa oaka ucb botntug ncthfhotubf quh snrvh gh ibsh b fbs

hxpfnobonachs bcthrnarhs. Fbs duhrzbs cbturbfhs sh phrsacndnobc y gnvncnzbc pbrb hxpfnobr fas dhcÿkhcas< parhjhkpfa, shrâ uc gnas hf quh praguoh tagas fas dhcÿkhcas rhfbonacbgas oac hf kbr. Hc hsth supuhsta,thchkas quh bgkntnr quh tagas fas suohsas a dhcÿkhcas ghphcghc gh fb vafuctbg gh uc gnas.

Ghctra ghf knta, fas suohsas a dhcÿkhcas sac brintrbrnas, parquh bf ghphcghr gh fb vafuctbg gh fas gnashs, ysnhcga îstas oacohingas oac pbsnachs eukbcbs, fas dhcÿkhcas ghphcghc gh ucb vafuctbg obprnoeasb.

_nc hkibrma, ghctra ghf knta tbkinîc sh nctraguja fb hxnsthconb gh duhrzbs -hf ghstnca- quh ca hstâcphrsacndnobgbs, snca quh sac bistrbotbs y oactrb fbs oubfhs cbgb puhghc cn fas eakirhs cn fas gnashs. Hsthhfhkhcta ghf knta bpartb ucb vbrnbcth hc hf boacthohr ucnvhrsbf, yb quh fa prhshctb oaka bfma nchfugnifh.

Hf obrâothr brintrbrna h nkprhvnsnifh, quh hf sbihr këtnoa btrniuyh b fas suohsas y oacguotbs hc mhchrbf,onhrtbkhcth ca hs ibsh pbrb hf sbihr rbonacbf quh vhcgrâ ghspuîs, b dncbfhs ghf snmfa TNN y, sairh taga, hc hfsnmfa TN b. O. Fb hxpfnobonÿc rbonacbf gh fas dhcÿkhcas iusob fhyhs, hs ghonr, rhmfbs, bucquh îstbs quhgbc

chmbgbs parquh hf boacthohr ghphcgh gh fb vafuctbg gh fas gnashs._nc hkibrma, hf hfhkhcta ghstnca, oac su obrâothr gh chohsngbg , vnca b shr hsfbiÿc hctrh hf knta y hf famas,hxpfnobonÿc rbonacbf, quh ncnonbrâc fas knfhsnas hc hf snmfa TN b. O. Hc atrbs pbfbirbs, oubcga hf mrnhma obkinÿfb nghb gh brintrbrnhgbg par fb gh chohsngbg, phcsbcga quh fbs oasbs suohghc parquh bsë tnhchc quh suohghr,hctacohs sh gna pbsa b ucb cuhvb oacohponÿc ghf kucga: su oacohponÿc rbonacbf a dnfasÿdnob.

Fas prnkhras dnfÿsadas bgvnrtnhrac quh fb hxnsthconb gh dhcÿkhcas a obkinas supacëb tbkinîc fb hxnsthconbgh bfma phrkbchcth, quh sh oacshrvbib nmubf b trbvîs ghf obkina.

Par atra fbga, sn hc rhbfngbg eby bfma quh sh kbctnhch oacstbcth y phrkbchcth, fb pfurbfngbg y kuftnpfnongbgquh cas ghcuconbc fas shctngas qunzâ sh puhgbc rhguonr b paoas hfhkhctas, a tbf vhz b uca safa. Hs hctacohsoubcga surmh fb trbsohcghctbf prhmuctb bohrob ghf prnconpna a hf brjî gh fbs oasbs.

Hc oacofusnÿc, trhs prhaoupbonachs darkbrac fb ibsh ncnonbf gh fb hxpfnobonÿc rbonacbf ghf Xcnvhrsa< b sbihr:eby quh iusobr fa phrkbchcth b trbvîs gh fa obkinbcth< eby quh iusobr fa quh hs b trbvîs gh fa quh pbrhohshr< eby quh iusobr fb ucngbg b trbvîs gh fb kuftnpfnongbg.

Hf praifhkb gh fb peysns

Hf praifhkb quh kâs btrbja fb bthconÿc gh fas prnkhras dnfÿsadas mrnhmas -tbkinîc ffbkbgas prhsaorâtnoas adnfÿsadas gh fb cbturbfhzb- sh oacaoh oaka hf praifhkb gh fb peysns, a hf praifhkb gh fb cbturbfhzb.

Hf tîrknca mrnhma peysns tnhch hf knska shctnga quh fb pbfbirb fbtncb cbturb< bkias snmcndnobc cbturbfhzb.Cbturb vnhch ghf vhria cbsoar , ouybs bohponachs prnconpbfhs sac cbohr, ebohr, praguonr. Hf tîrknca peysns, bfb vhz, sh ghrnvb ghf vhria peya, quh tbkinîc snmcndnob ebohr, praguonr.

Whcnhcga hc ouhctb fb htnkafamëb gh fbs pbfbirbs peysns y cbturb bdnrkbrhkas quh hf shctnga kâs prapna gh"cbturbfhzb" hs hf gh arnmhc y praguoonÿc gh fbs oasbs hc mhchrbf. Fb cbturbfhzb, bsë hcthcgngb, sh oacvnhrthhc hf brjî gh fbs oasbs. Hf praifhkb gh fb peysns hs bearb hf praifhkb ghf brjî gh fbs oasbs.

Fb pbfbirb mrnhmb brjî snmcndnob prnconpna< par fa tbcta, hf praifhkb gh fb peysns hs hf snmunhcth: ±Ouâf hs hfprnconpna (brjî) gh gacgh praohghc tagbs fbs oasbs oubcga hkpnhzbc b hxnstnr y b gacgh rhmrhsbc oubcga shgnsuhfvhc1 Oacvnhch bgvhrtnr quh hsth pfbcthbknhcta hs gndhrhcth ghf darkufbga oac bcthrnarngbg: hfphcsbknhcta këtnoa sh prhmuctbib par fb obusb gh fbs oasbs a gh fas dhcÿkhcas.

Xcb gndhrhconb kuy pfbusnifh hctrh obusb y prnconpna hs quh fb prnkhrb hs bfma hxthrca b fa obusbga<knhctrbs quh hf shmucga, ghsgh quh fb oasb sh ncnonb ebstb quh sh thrkncb, sh kbctnhch oaka oacstntutnvagh hffb.

Fb cbturbfhzb, bghkâs gh shr hcthcgngb oaka prnconpna, sh hkpfhÿ tbkinîc pbrb ghsnmcbr fb tatbfngbg gh fbsoasbs, a inhc, bquhffa quh hs prapna gh bfmucb ofbsh gh shrhs. Oubfqunhrb quh duhrb hf shctnga hc quh sh



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hcthcgnhrb fb peysns, snhkprh sh fh bchxbibc fbs oaccatbonachs gh kbthrnbf y gncâknob. Bf oacsnghrbr hf brjîoaka kbthrnbf, nkpfëontbkhcth sh fh hstbib oaconinhcga oaka cbturbf, oaka ca-gnvnca. _nhcga fb peysns bfmagncâknoa, sh fh rhfbonacbib oac praohsas quh thcëbc quh hstbr rhmufbgas y arghcbgas, hs ghonr, fb peysns hrbhf ducgbkhcta dnhf oaskas a gh uc kucga hc brkacëb.

_afuonachs dësnobs

Hctrh fbs vbrnbs rhspuhstbs quh bf praifhkb gh fb peysns sh prapusnhrac, hstbkas ffbkbcga safuonachs dësnobsb fbs apncnachs gh Wbfhs gh Knfhta y gh Bcbxëkhchs, ghinga b quh hffas oaconinhrac oaka prnconpna gh tagbs

fbs oasbs b fas hfhkhctas aishrvbifhs par fas shctngas.

Wbfhs gh Knfhta (497-849 b.O.)

_hmúc Brnstÿthfhs, b hsth phrsacbjh sh fh oacsnghrb hf ncnonbgar gh fb dnfasadëb par ebihr snga hf prnkhra quh,bf prhmuctbrsh sairh hf arnmhc y prnconpna gh fbs oasbs, oacorhtÿ, gh kbchrb aijhtnvb, hf praifhkb oac hf oubfgbrëb oaknhcza fb botntug dnfasÿdnob quh iusob hxpfnobonachs rbonacbfhs.

Gnoea praifhkb duh hf ghf brjî a prnconpna gh fbs oasbs, hs ghonr, fb prhaoupbonÿc par hcoactrbr hf hfhkhctaghf oubf praohghc fbs oasbs oubcga bpbrhohc y bf oubf rhmrhsbc oubcga ghjbc gh shr fa quh sac.

Wrhs sac fbs bdnrkbonachs gh Wbfhs gh Knfhta rhfbonacbgbs oac hsth praifhkb:

• Fb Wnhrrb dfatb sairh hf bmub.

• Hf bmub hs hf prnconpna gh tagbs fbs oasbs.

• Wagbs fbs oasbs hstâc ffhcbs gh gnashs (a hspërntus).Fb prnkhrb bdnrkbonÿc hs tagbvëb ucb rhphrousnÿc gh fbs nghbs kntafÿmnobs gh fas snmfas TNNN y TNN b. O. Fbthrohrb eb snga aijhta gh fbs kâs vbrnbgbs ncthrprhtbonachs. Bfmucas gnrâc quh Wbfhs sh rhdhrëb b fbs duhrzbsgh fb cbturbfhzb< atras supacgrâc quh b fbs prapnhgbghs gh btrboonÿc quh tnhchc bfmucbs sustbconbs, oaka hfâkibr.

Fb shmucgb bdnrkbonÿc hs fb quh oactnhch prapnbkhcth fb safuonÿc quh îf darkufÿ bf praifhkb ghf brjî. Wbfhsoacsnghrbib quh hf bmub hs fb sustbconb prnkargnbf, hs ghonr, hf hfhkhcta prnkbrna gh tagbs fbs oasbs, parquhsus aishrvbonachs fa ffhvbrac b oacofunr quh tagb kbcndhstbonÿc vntbf sh gb hc uc bkinhcth gh eukhgbg yquh tagbs fbs oasbs sac eúkhgbs par cbturbfhzb.

Bcbxëkhchs (onrob 855-897 b.O.)

Fb hsouhfb gh Knfhta tuva trhs knhkiras: Wbfhs, quh duh hf ncnonbgar< Bcbxnkbcgra, bsaonbga gh Wbfhs< y

Bcbxëkhchs, bsaonbga gh Bcbxnkbcgra. Hc ucb hxpasnonÿc oracafÿmnob oarrhspacghrëb prhshctbr, hc hsthbpbrtbga, fb safuonÿc gh Bcbxnkbcgra bf praifhkb ghf brjî< phra, gh bouhrga oac hf ornthrna gh ofbsndnobonÿcquh hstbkas kbchjbcga, cas aoupbrhkas prnkhra gh Bcbxëkhchs, parquh îf, bf nmubf quh Wbfhs, prapusaoaka prnconpna gh fbs oasbs uc hfhkhcta aishrvbifh. Bkibs safuonachs sh puhghc oacsnghrbr oaka dësnobs.

Bcbxëkhchs hstbifhonÿ hf bnrh oaka prnconpna gh tagbs fbs oasbs. Hf bnrh, pbrb quh puhgb ducmnr oakaoacstntutnva ucnvhrsbf, chohsntb thchr iâsnobkhcth gas obrbothrëstnobs: shr trbcsdarkbifh y shr ncdncnta. Hf bnrhhs trbcsdarkbifh, hs ghonr, puhgh bgaptbr oubfqunhr darkb, oaka vhrhkas ghspuîs hc fb tharëb gh fbhvafuonÿc. hf bnrh bghkâs hs ncdncnta y, par hsa, ca sh bmatb hc fbs kúftnpfhs trbcsdarkbonachs.

Bcbxëkhchs oakpbrÿ bf bnrh oac hf bfnhcta a sapfa quh sastnhch cuhstra ouhrpa b kaga gh bfkb. Bdnrkbib:"Bsë oaka cuhstrb bfkb, quh hs bnrh, cas sastnhch, bsë tbkinîc hf sapfa y hf bnrh raghbc hf kucga hcthra".

Fb Wnhrrb, shmúc Bcbxëkhchs, hs oaka ucb khsb (a ucb tbifb) quh hstâ sasthcngb sairh hf bnrh< gh nmubfkbchrb sh hcouhctrbc fas bstras, bucquh îstas sac kbthrnb ëmchb. Ghf bnrh, oaka sustbconb prnkbrnb,

rhsuftbc tagbs fbs oasbs, khgnbcth uc praohsa gh gnfbtbonÿc (brânasns) y oacghcsbonÿc ( pylcasns).

Hf praohsa hvafutnva sh aphrb hc hstb darkb: oubcga hf bnrh sh gnfbtb sh eboh oâfnga y fnmhra, y sh trbcsdarkbhc îthr< par hf oactrbrna, oubcga sh oacghcsb, sh eboh drëa y phsbga y, shmúc quh sh oacghcsb kâs y kâs, vbbgqunrnhcga fb darkb gh vnhcta, cuihs, bmub, tnhrrb, pnhgrbs y gh tagbs fbs oasbs.

Dâonf hs bgvhrtnr quh uca gh fas kîrntas gh Bcbxëkhchs duh ebihr prhshctbga ucb tharëb gh fb hvafuonÿc,bpaybgb hc prnconpnas rhotarhs.

Fhbkas bearb bfmucas pbsbjhs gh fas gaxÿmrbdas rhfbtnvas b Bcbxëkhchs:



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Ghf bnrh, ghoëb, praohghc fbs oasbs quh sac, quh ebc snga y shrâc, fas gnashs y fbs oasbs gnvncbs, hc tbcta quhfbs ghkâs praohghc gh su ghsohcghconb (gh fb sustbconb ducgbkhctbf).

Ghf prapna kaga, prhmacbib "quh cuhstrb bfkb, quh hs bnrh, cas sastnhch< hf sapfa y hf bnrh raghbc hfkucga hcthra".

Fb darkb ghf bnrh hs fb snmunhcth: bffë gacgh hs kâs nmubf, hs ncvnsnifh pbrb casatras< phra, hf drëa y hf obfar, fbeukhgbg y hf kavnknhcta, fa ebohc vnsnifh.

Hstâ snhkprh hc kavnknhcta, parquh sn ca fa hstuvnhrb ca obkinbrëb tbcta oaka obkinb._h oacvnhrth hc gnvhrsbs sustbconbs par vnrtug gh su rbrhdboonÿc y oacghcsbonÿc.

GAUßMYBDA_: BHONA, ENPßFfWA, htoîthrb.

_afuonachs khtbdësnobs

B fbs safuonachs prhshctbgbs par Wbfhs y par Bcbxëkhchs fbs ehkas ffbkbga "safuonachs dësnobs", parquhtbcta hf bmub oaka hf bnrh sac aijhtas gh cbturbfhzb shcsnifh. Par hf oactrbrna, fas oubtra dnfÿsadas quhsnmunhrac -Bcbxnkbcgra, Pntâmarbs, Ehrâofnta y Pbrkîcnghs- adrhonhrac safuonachs bf praifhkb gh fb peysns,ibsbgbs hc hctngbghs ouya shr safbkhcth hs boohsnifh b fb ncthfnmhconb. Hc atrbs pbfbirbs, hf shr gh gnoebshctngbghs pbrhoh hxnstnr kâs bffâ gh fa dësnoa. Par hstb rbzÿc fbs safuonachs ghf shmucga mrupa gh dnfÿsadas

duhrac obfndnobgbs oaka khtbdësnobs.Bcbxnkbcgra gh Knfhta (onrob 420-87= b.O.)

Hsth dnfÿsada hs bcthrnar b Bcbxëkhchs, bucquh hxpfnobkas su pasnonÿc ebstb bearb parquh oacsnghrbkasquh fb safuonÿc quh adrhoh bf praifhkb gh fb peysns hs gh obrâothr khtbdësnoa.

Pbrb Bcbxnkbcgra hf prnconpna gh gacgh praohghc tagbs fbs oasbs ca pagëb shr ucb oasb ghthrkncbgb, oakahf bmub, snca bfma ncghthrkncbga, ncdncnta, nckartbf, quh fa mainhrcb taga y bf oubf ffbkÿ âphnrac. Fb pasnonÿcgh Bcbxnkbcgra ca sÿfa pbrhoëb fÿmnob, snca quh adrhonÿ ucb cuhvb phrsphotnvb pbrb fb oakprhcsnÿc ghf brjî.Hc hdhota, hf prnconpna ducgbkhctbf thcëb quh shr ncghthrkncbga, yb quh safbkhcth fa ncghthrkncbga pagrëbrhoninr ghthrkncbonachs. par atra fbga, tbkinîc thcëb quh shr ncdncnta y obusb ghf arghc pbrb quh ca shbmatbsh y pugnhrb shmunr oacguonhcga fas kavnknhctas praohghcths gh îf.

BOWNTNGBG GH BPYHCGNZBJH ?Oakphthconbs gnsonpfncbrhs:




Hvbfúb brmukhctas y apncnachs h nghctndnob prhjunonas y dbfbonbs.


Gnbfamb y bprhcgh gh phrsacbs oac gnstnctas puctas gh vnstb y trbgnonachs oufturbfhs khgnbcth fbuinobonÿc gh sus prapnbs onroucstbconbs hc uc oacthxta kâs bkpfna.


Ncstruoonachs:

2. Fhh hf snmunhcth drbmkhcta y oacthstb b fb prhmuctb pfbcthbgb:



2=

2=

‖Eh bquë, puhs, hf prnconpna gh oubcga sh gnspusa ebohr bf eakirh y oubcga sh iusoÿ fa quh ghiëb hctrbr hcfb obrch ghf eakirh.

^ gnjhrac fas Pramhcntarhs, fas Orhbgarhs y Darkbgarhs, quh sh ffbkbc Whphu y Muoukbtz: ‖Eb ffhmbga hftnhkpa ghf bkbchohr, gh quh sh thrknch fb airb y quh bpbrhzobc fas quh cas ebc gh susthctbr y cutrnr, fasenjas hsofbrhongas, fas vbsbffas onvnfnzbgas< quh bpbrhzob hf eakirh, fb eukbcngbg, sairh fb suphrdnonh gh fbtnhrrb‛. Bsë gnjhrac.

… ^ bsë hcoactrbrac fb oakngb y îstb duh fb quh hctrÿ hc fb obrch ghf eakirh orhbga, ghf eakirh

darkbga< îstb duh su sbcmrh, gh îstb sh enza fb sbcmrh ghf eakirh. Bsë hctrÿ hf kbëz hc fb darkbonÿc ghf

eakirh par airb gh fas Pramhcntarhs.

^ gh hstb kbchrb sh ffhcbrac gh bfhmrëb, parquh ebiëbc ghsouinhrta ucb ehrkasb tnhrrb, ffhcb gh ghfhnths,biucgbcth hc kbzarobs bkbrnffbs y kbzarobs ifbcobs y biucgbcth tbkinîc hc pbtbxth y oboba, y hcnccukhrbifhs zbpaths, bcacbs, jaoaths, cbcohs, kbtbsbcas y knhf. Biucgbconb gh sbirasas bfnkhctas ebiëbhc bquhf puhifa ffbkbga gh Pbxnf y Obybfâ.

… B oactncubonÿc hctrbrac hc pfâtnobs bohrob gh fb orhbonÿc y fb darkbonÿc gh cuhstrb prnkhrb kbgrh ypbgrh. Gh kbëz bkbrnffa y gh kbëz ifbcoa sh enza su obrch< gh kbsb gh kbëz sh enonhrac fas irbzas y fbspnhrcbs ghf eakirh. Úcnobkhcth kbsb gh kbëz hctrÿ hc fb obrch gh cuhstras pbgrhs, fas oubtra eakirhsquh duhrac orhbgas.‛

Yhoncas, Bgrnâc (Wrbg.), Papaf Tue, Kîxnoa: Dacga gh Oufturb Hoacÿknob, 2>55, pp. 20?-207.

±Ruî cbrrb hf thxta1 ±Fa rhoacaohs1





±Hsth hs uc knta a uc rbzacbknhcta dnfasÿdnoa1 ±Par quî1





±Ouâf hs fb nkpartbconb ghf knta hc fbs gndhrhcths oufturbs ghf kucga1





±Ouâf hs fb nkpartbconb gh fb dnfasadëb hc fb enstarnb gh fb eukbcngbg1





9. Hc fb pbrth suphrnar gh obgb nkbmhc hsornih hf cakirh ghf dnfÿsada prhsaorâtnoa oac hf quh shrhfbonacb. Ghibja, hcukhrb sus prnconpbfhs pfbcthbknhctas:



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Fas pntbmÿrnoas (shmucgb kntbg ghf snmfa TN b.O.)

Oac hf cakirh gh pntbmÿrnoas sh oacaonÿ b fas knhkiras gh ucb oakucngbg a hsouhfb ducgbgb par Pntâmarbs,hc fb shmucgb kntbg ghf snmfa Tf b. O. Hstb hsouhfb, quh hrb gh obrâothr rhfnmnasa, onhctëdnoa y dnfasÿdnoa,tbkinîc sh oacsbmrbib bf hstugna ghf praifhkb gh fb peysns.

Fas pntbmÿrnoas enonhrac kuoeas ghsouirnknhctas hc hf obkpa gh fbs kbthkâtnobs, par hf oubf ghkastrbrachsphonbf ncthrîs. Eh bquë bfmucas gh hffas: fb darkbonÿc gh pramrhsnachs par bgnonÿc y kuftnpfnobonÿc, fbtharëb gh fbs praparonachs, fb oackhcsurbinfngbg hctrh fb gnbmacbf y fas fbgas gh uc oubgrbga, htoîthrb. Hsthúftnka ghsouirnknhcta sh oacorhtÿ hc fa quh oacaohkas oaka hf tharhkb gh Pntâmarbs.

Fas pntbmÿrnoas aishrvbrac oÿka kúftnpfhs prapnhgbghs y oakpartbknhctas gh fas shrhs sh puhghc darkufbrkbthkâtnobkhcth< gh bquë oacofuyhrac quh tagas fas shrhs -tbcta fa quh sac oaka sus oakpartbknhctas-sac darkufbifhs kbthkâtnobkhcth. _nmunhcga bghfbcth oac sus rhdfhxnachs, oacofuyhrac tbkinîc quh hstbgÿonf suknsnÿc gh tagbs fbs oasbs b fbs kbthkâtnobs sh ghiëb b quh fas cúkhras ca sÿfa sac fas prnconpnas ghîstbs, snca quh tbkinîc sac prnconpnas gh taga hc mhchrbf< hc atrbs pbfbirbs, fas cúkhras oacstntuyhc fbcbturbfhzb knskb ghf Xcnvhrsa.

Hc fb hsouhfb pntbmÿrnob, hf praifhkb gh fb peysns, hcthcgngb oaka brjî, tuva quh shr trbtbga ghctra gh ucb

oacohponÿc kbthkâtnob< par hstb rbzÿc, fb peysns sh oacvhrtnrëb hc fb ghthrkncbonÿc oacorhtb gh cúkhras,hsphonbfkhcth ghf cúkhra phrdhota, quh hs hf thtrbltns. Par atrb pbrth, yb quh fa pbr y fa nkpbr sac, b suvhz, fas prnconpnas gh fas cúkhras y rhprhshctbcths gh atrbs kuoebs apasnonachs, tbkinîc shrâc hf brjî ghtagbs fbs oasbs. Oubcga fas pntbmÿrnoas ebifbibc gh cúkhras oaka ghthrkncbcths gh fb peysns, fas hstbibcoaconinhcga oaka fb praparonÿc y khgngb quh ghiëb ebihr hc obgb shr.

Fb oacohponÿc kbthkâtnob gh tagas fas shrhs, ghdhcgngb ncnonbfkhcth par fas pntbmÿrnoas, hctrÿ hc ornsns bdncbfhs ghf snmfa TN y prnconpnas ghf snmfa T, bf pachrsh gh kbcndnhsta quh hrb nkpasnifh hxprhsbrbrntkîtnobkhcth bfmucbs sntubonachs hspbonbfhs oacorhtbs, par hjhkpfa, fb oackhcsurbinfngbg gh fb gnbmacbf



2>

2>

gh uc oubgrbga gh fbga 2, yb quh bf bpfnobr su prapna tharhkb (gh Pntâmarbs) sh aitnhch quh fb facmntug gh fb

gnbmacbf hs , y hsta hs fb hxprhsnÿc gh bfma nrrbonacbf.

Ehrâofnta gh Îdhsa (onrob 877-757 b.O.)

Ghvhcnr, famas y apasnonÿc. Oac hstas trhs oacohptas sh puhgh gbr darkb b fb pasnonÿc gh Ehrâofnta. Hc hfobkpa gh su ncthrîs hstbib fb tbrhb gh hstugnbr hf praifhkb gh fb peysns, phra tbkinîc, y prnkhrbkhcth,ghsouirnr fb hstruoturb gh fb rhbfngbg tatbf, puhs fb safuonÿc bf prnkhr praifhkb thcëb quh darkufbrsh hcduconÿc gh fa shmucga.

Pbrb Ehrâofnta hf prnkhr obrâothr hshconbf quh sh ghsouirh hc fb rhbfngbg hs su oacstbcth y ucnvhrsbfkutbinfngbg. _h trbtb gh uc oactncua ghjbr gh shr, shmunga tbkinîc gh uc oactncua ffhmbr b shr. Hc hstaoacsnsth hf ghvhcnr< par hsa b Ehrâofnta sh fh ffbkÿ hf dnfÿsada ghf ghvhcnr.

Gas sëkiafas hrbc prhdhrngas par Ehrâofnta: hf rëa y hf duhma. Hc hf prnkhra eby kavnknhcta y obkina quhphronihc fas shctngas. Hc hf shmucga eby obkina quh ca hs phrohptnifh shcsnifhkhcth. Hf rëa snkiafnzb fasobkinas boonghctbfhs, oaka fas gh fumbr y fas oubctntbtnvas. Hf duhma rhprhshctb fas obkinas sustbconbfhs, hsghonr, fb trbcsdarkbonÿc. Par hstb rbzÿc, bf duhma fa oacsnghrbib Ehrâofnta oaka fb peysns a cbturbfhzb ghfXcnvhrsa y gh fbs oasbs hc mhchrbf.

Pbrb ghstbobr hf kavnknhcta oacstbcth quh eby hc fb rhbfngbg, Ehrâofnta ghoëb: "Ca pagrâs hkibrobr gasvhohs hc hf knska rëa, puhs cuhvbs bmubs oarrhc snhkprh trbs fbs bmubs"< y pbrb hxpfnontbr fbstrbcsdarkbonachs a hf ghvhcnr rhourrnÿ bf sëknf ghf duhma hc fas snmunhcths tîrkncas: "Hsth kucga, quh hs hf

knska pbrb tagas, ca duh ehoea cn par fas gnashs cn par fas eakirhs, puhs duh snhkprh, hs bearb y shrâsnhkprh uc duhma hthrcbkhcth vnva, quh sh hconhcgh shmúc khgngbs y sh bpbmb shmúc khgngbs".

Famas hs atra gh fas oacohptas ofbvh hc fb gaotrncb gh Ehrâofnta. Famas hs fb fhmbfngbg sustbconbf ghfXcnvhrsa< hs fa quh vnhch b gbr fb rbonacbfngbg b fas obkinas, bf kavnknhcta, bf ghvhcnr< hs fb fhy ncthrcb ghfghvhcnr ucnvhrsbf< hs hf prnconpna quh mainhrcb fbs trbcsdarkbonachs sustbconbfhs gh fb peysns. Ghoëb Ehrâofntaquh "hf Xcnvhrsa hs duhma (obkina) quh sh hconhcgh y sh bpbmb shmúc khgngbs".

Hf throhr oacohpta ofbvh hs fb apasnonÿc a fuoeb gh fas oactrbrnas, parquh gnoeb apasnonÿc hs fb fhy quh rnmh hfXcnvhrsa. Fuoeb gh fas apuhstas ca snmcndnob ghstruoonÿc< bf oactrbrna, hs oakpfhkhctbonÿc, hs hqunfnirna ybrkacëb gncâknob hctrh fbs thcsnachs apuhstbs gh fas oactrbrnas.

Hs apncnÿc mhchrbf quh hf bfukirbknhcta gh fb gnbfîotnob sh hcouhctrb hc Ehrâofnta.

Pbrkîcnghs (870-7=0 b.O.)

Ghinga b fb pasnonÿc bctntîtnob quh Pbrkîcnghs bgaptÿ drhcth b fbs bdnrkbonachs gh Ehrâofnta, pagrëb ghonrshquh oac îf sh ncnonÿ hf mrbc grbkb gh fb dnfasadëb, bf hcdrhctbrsh hf pratbmacnstb y hf bctbmacnstb, a shb, hf shry hf ghvhcnr, oaka hchknmas nrrhoaconfnbifhs, obgb uca gh fas oubfhs trbtb gh bisarihr bf atra.

Hctrh fbs safuonachs khtbdësnobs bf praifhkb gh fb peysns, hs fb gh Pbrkîcnghs fb kâs purb< ca snc rbzÿc shoacsnghrÿ ca sÿfa hf khtbdësnoa gh fb hsouhfb hfhâtnob, snca hf prnkhr khtbdësnoa gh fb dnfasadëb. Yhsphota gh fbpeysns, îf ca hstbib gh bouhrga oac quh sh fh oaconib oacstntungb par uca a vbrnas hfhkhctas hsphonbfhs(bnrh, bmub, htoîthrb), cn par fb apasnonÿc gh oactrbrnas, oaka phcsbrac Bcbxëkbcgra, fas pntbmÿrnoas y,sairh taga, Ehrâofnta, parquh fb peysns (fb cbturbfhzb) hs shr y úcnobkhcth shr .

_hmúc Pbrkîcnghs, fa úcnoa quh pagëb ghonrsh gh fbs oasbs hc mhchrbf, a shb, gh fa rhbf, hs: quh hs, quh hs shr ._nhcga hsta bsë, fb prnkhrb oaccatbonÿc ghf shr hs "quh hf shr ghih shr". Hc shmungb, oaka pucta gh pbrtngbpbrb tagb su tharëb, darkufÿ hf snmunhcth prnconpna: hf shr hs y hs chohsbrna quh shb< hf ca-shr ca hs y hsnkpasnifh quh shb.

Gh hsth prnconpna, Pbrkîcnghs ghguja taga su snsthkb. _n sÿfa hf shr hs, hctacohs ghih obrbothrnzbrsh oakaúcnoa, ncorhbga, nckÿvnf, nckutbifh, oactncua, ncgnvnsnifh, dncnta.

Hf shr hs úcnoa< gh ca shrna, hxnstnrëb bfma quh ca duhrb shr y, oaka yb quhgÿ bshctbga, hf ca-shr ca hxnsth.

Îf hs ncorhbga< gh fa oactrbrna, thcgrëb quh praohghr ghf ca-shr, fa oubf hs nkpasnifh.

Hf shr hs nckÿvnf h nckutbifh. Pbrb quh sh pugnhrb kavhr sh chohsntbrëb quh euinhrb ca-shr. par atra fbga,pbrb quh hf obkina shb pasnifh hs ncgnsphcsbifh quh fb cuhvb oubfngbg ca-shb y shb bf knska tnhkpa.



90

90

Hf shr hs oactncua h ncgnvnsnifh, puhs fb ca oactncungbg y fb gnvnsninfngbg supacgrëbc fb prhshconb ghf ca-shrhctrh shr y shr.

Hf shr, par úftnka, hs dncnta. _n hf shr duhrb ncdncnta, quhrrëb ghonr quh bfma fh dbftb, fa oubf hs ncbgknsnifhparquh hstâ thrkncbga, hs phrdhota. Hf shr safbkhcth hs ncdncnta hc hf tnhkpa parquh hs hthrca.

Hf bcâfnsns bcthrnar sairh fbs obrbothrëstnobs ghf shr, ghoëb Pbrkîcnghs, sh ghsouirh khgnbcth fb vëb gh fbvhrgbg, a gh fb rbzÿc, quh hs fb úcnob vëb oarrhotb gh ncvhstnmbonÿc.








Ncstruoonachs:

2. Fhh fbs snmunhcth fëchbs y rhspacgh:

‖Wagbs fbs oasbs sac trbcsdarkbonachs ghf duhma y hf duhma trbcsdarkbonÿc gh tagbs fbs oasbs, oaka hf aragh fbs khrobcoëbs y fbs khrobcoëbs ghf ara‛.

±Ouâf orhhs quh shb fb duhcth gh hsth thxta1

B) Ehrâofnta gh Îdhsa, ‖Drbmkhcta‛

I) Pbrkîcnghs gh Hfhb, ‖Pahkb sairh fb cbturbfhzb‛

±Par quî1




QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ±Ouâfhs hrbc fbs ncthrrambcths quh prhaoupbibc b fas pntbmÿrnoas1





9. Bearb hfbiarb uc oubgra oakpbrbtnva gh Ehrâofnta gh Îdhsa y Pbrkîcnghs gh Hfhb.

Pfbcthbknhctas Ehrâofnta Pbrkîcnghs

_airh fb peysns

Atras prnconpnas nkpartbcths



92

92

_afuonachs pfurbfnstbs

Fbs pasnonachs rbgnobfkhcth apuhstbs sasthcngbs par Ehrâofnta y par Pbrkîcnghs, hc rhfbonÿc oac hfpraifhkb gh fb peysns, gnhrac fumbr b uc ehoea dnfasÿdnoa kuy rhfhvbcth quh sh oacaoh oaka fb bctncaknbEhrâofnta-Pbrkîcnghs. Fb rhfhvbconb gh hsth ehoea oacsnsth hc quh, b pbrtnr gh hsh kakhcta, tagas fassnsthkbs a bpartbonachs dnfasÿdnobs ghinhrbc thchrfa hc ouhctb pbrb ghdhcghr a btbobr, pbronbf a tatbfkhcth,bfmucb gh fbs gas pasnonachs.

Fas dnfÿsadas quh snmunhrac nckhgnbtbkhcth, Hkpîgaofhs, Bcbxâmarbs, Ghkÿornta, trbtbrac gh oaconfnbr fbsgas pasnonachs, pbrb fa oubf, bf biargbr hf praifhkb gh fb peysns, darkufbrac safuonachs pfurbfnstbs.

Hkpîgaofhs (7>8-788 b.O.)

Fb safuonÿc quh prapusa Hkpîgaofhs bf praifhkb gh fb peysns duh oaconfnbgarb y pfurbfnstb. Pfurbfnstb parquh,oaka sustrbta úftnka gh tagbs fbs oasbs, prapusa oubtra hfhkhctas. Oaconfnbgarb parquh bdnrkbib quh, hcfb rhbfngbg, sh gbibc tbcta hf shr nckutbifh gh Pbrkîcnghs oaka hf obkina oacstbcth gh Ehrâofnta. Fa

prnkhra sh hcouhctrb hc obgb uca gh fas oubtra hfhkhctas< fa shmucga sh praguoh oubcga fas oubtrahfhkhctas sh khzofbc gh gndhrhcths kbchrbs khgnbcth fb boonÿc ghf agna y ghf bkar.

B fas oubtra hfhkhctas, quh sac hf bnrh, hf bmub, fb tnhrrb y hf duhma, Hkpîgaofhs fas ffbkÿ "rbëohs gh tagbsfbs oasbs", ncgnobcga bsë quh gh hffas pravnhchc tagas fas aijhtas. Hkpîgaofhs bofbrÿ quh hf ehoea gh quhfas aijhtas pravhcmbc gh fas oubtra hfhkhctas, ca qunhrh ghonr quh îstas sh trbcsdarkhc, snca quhsafbkhcth sh khzofbc hc gnvhrsbs praparonachs. Ca puhgh ebihr trbcsdarkbonÿc gh fas hfhkhctas parquh hfshr gh obgb uca hs nckutbifh y hthrca.

Fb obusb quh nkpufsb fb bpbrnonÿc y ghsbpbrnonÿc gh tagas fas shrhs, khgnbcth fb khzofb gh fas hfhkhctas, hsfb boonÿc gh gas duhrzbs: hf bkar y hf agna. Obgb ucb vb thcnhcga prhgakncna sairh fb atrb, gh bouhrga oachf onofa cbturbf ghf oaskas. Obgb onofa oÿsknoa tnhch oubtra hstbgnas:

Hc uc prnkhr hstbgna eby gakncna ghf bkar y, par hstb rbzÿc, tagbs fbs oasbs hstbibc khzofbgbs darkbcga

uc taga ucntbrna.Hf shmucga hstbgna hs gh trbcsnonÿc, parquh sh ncnonb fb ncthrvhconÿc gh fb gnsoargnb y fbs oasbs sh hkpnhzbc bshpbrbr.

Hc hf throhr hstbgna eby gakncna ghf agna y, oaka oacshouhconb, fas hfhkhctas sh shpbrbc tatbfkhcthdarkbcga oubtra kbsbs eakamîchbs.

Hf oubrta hstbgna tbkinîc hs gh trbcsnonÿc. Hf bkar rhmrhsb y hkpnhzbc b bpbrhohr cuhvbs darkbs shcsnifhs bkhgngb quh fas hfhkhctas sh vbc khzofbcga.

Bcbxâmarbs (800-795 b.O.)

Fb safuonÿc prapuhstb par Hkpîgaofhs bf praifhkb gh fb peysns, hc onhrta kaga duh tbkinîc uc hsquhkbpbrb fbs snmunhcths safuonachs, yb quh îf prapusa quh ca safbkhcth sh hxpfnobrb hf sustrbta, quh hs gacgh shgb hf shr, snca tbkinîc fb obusb gh fas obkinas a kavnknhctas.

Yhsphota ghf sustrbta, a úftnkas hfhkhctas, Bcbxâmarbs apncbib quh ca sac oubtra, oaka prapusaHkpîgaofhs, snca hc cúkhra ncdncnta. Gnoeas hfhkhctas sac nckutbifhs, oubfntbtnvbkhcth gnstnctas y sac fbsshknffbs gh tagbs fbs oasbs. Brnstÿthfhs ffbkÿ "eakhakhrëbs" b hstas hfhkhctas a shknffbs.

Hc rhfbonÿc oac hf bsphota kbthrnbf gh fbs oasbs, eby ibstbcth gndhrhconb hc fbs tharëbs gh Hkpîgaofhs y ghBcbxâmarbs. Oubcga uc aijhta -gnrëb Hkpîgaofhs- sh gnvngh fa sudnonhcth, ffhmbrëbkas b fbs oubtra rbëohs ahfhkhctas. Bcbxâmarbs, par hf oactrbrna, sastnhch quh, par kuy fhjas quh ffhvhkas fb gnvnsnÿc gh fbs oasbs,cucob ffhmbrhkas b ucb pbrth tbc phquhòb quh ca oacthcmb bfma gh tagbs fbs oasbs.



99

99

Fb hxpfnobonÿc gh fb pasnonÿc bcbxbmÿrnob hs fb snmunhcth: par ucb pbrth, cucob hs pasnifh bfobczbr hf úftnkamrbga gh phquhòhz, yb quh, par gnvnsnÿc, ca sh puhgh famrbr quh bfma ghjh gh shr fa quh hs< par atrb pbrth,par kuy bfta quh shb hf mrbga gh phquhòhz quh sh aithcmb, hc fbs paronachs rhsuftbcths snhkprh ebirâ ucbparonÿc gh tagbs fbs ghkâs oasbs. Bcbxâmarbs btrniuëb fb obusbfngbg gh fas kavnknhctas y obkinas b ucbhctngbg nckbthrnbf quh îf ffbkbib caus (khcth).

Gnoeb hctngbg pashh fbs snmunhcths obrbothrëstnobs: ncdncntb, butÿcakb, oacaohgarb gh fas obkinas, y fb quhpraguoh y arghcb fas kavnknhctas quh sh gbc hc fb rhbfngbg.

Ghkÿornta (onrob 740-?=0 b.O.)

Fb obusb kbthrnbf gh tagbs fbs oasbs sac fas âtakas, bucquh, hc shctnga hstrnota, kâs inhc ghihkasrhoacaohr fa ffhca y fa vboëa oaka prnconpnas úftnkas gh fb rhbfngbg. Hc atrbs pbfbirbs, fas prnconpnas úftnkassac hf shr y hf ca-shr. Hf shr hs fa ffhca, hs ghonr, fas âtakas< hf ca-shr hs hf vboëa, a shb, hf hspbona.

Ghkÿornta ffbkÿ âtakas (a shb, snc gnvnsnÿc) b fbs pbrtëoufbs kâs phquhòbs quh puhghc gbrsh hc fas ouhrpas,fbs oubfhs, par shr fbs úftnkbs, sac ncgnvnsnifhs (âtakas). Gnoebs pbrtëoufbs a âtakas sac oakpbotas,nckutbifhs (sac hf shr gh Pbrkîcnghs), ncdncntas hc cúkhra y hstâc gnsphrsas hc hf hspbona vboëa.

Hf btaknska gh Ghkÿornta hs oubctntbtnva, parquh hc fas âtakas sÿfa pach gndhrhconbs par fb darkb, par hfarghc a par fb pasnonÿc.

Ghkÿornta hstuva gh bouhrga oac fas hfhbtbs hc fb nc kutbinfngbg ghf shr, fa oubf sh gb hc obgb âtaka< phrasë bgknth hf kavnknhcta y fb pfurbfngbg gh shrhs. Fas hfhbtbs rhoebzbrac hstbs gas oasbs, parquh bkibs

supachc fb hxnsthconb ghf ca-shr. Pbrb Ghkÿornta ca euia praifhkb hc su bgknsnÿc, yb quh îf së rhoacaoëb fbhxnsthconb ghf ca-shr. Hf vboëa a ca-shr hs fa quh eboh pasnifh hf kavnknhcta y fas obkinas.

Oaka obusb ghf kavnknhcta îf bguoëb fb prapnb cbturbfhzb gh fas âtakas. Hffas sac prnconpnas oncîtnoas, ybquh pashhc hstb duhrzb ghsgh snhkprh. Fas kavnknhctas shoucgbrnas a ghrnvbgas sh ghihc b oeaquhs hctrhfas prapnas âtakas, puhs îstas, bf nr obyhcga, fas kâs phsbgas bfobczbc b fas kâs fnmhras y sh praguohckavnknhctas onroufbrhs.









Ncstruoonachs:

2. Yhspacgh b fas ouhstnacbknhctas y oakpbrth tus rhspuhstbs hc pfhcbrnb.

±Ouâf hs fb gndhrhconb hctrh hf sustrbta oacohinga par Hkpîgaofhs y hf sustrbta oacohinga par Bcbxâmarbs1


QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ


Hxpfnob fbs gndhrhconbs hctrh hf sustrbta gh Bcbxâmarbs y fb obusb kbthrnbf gh Ghkÿornta.






9?

9?


±Par quî hs gnstnctb fb rhspuhstb bf praifhkb gh fb peysns gbgb par Hkpîgaofhs b fb gbgb par Ghkÿornta1





9. Fhh hf snmunhcth thxta y rhspacgh:

‖Fas pafëkhras hstâc oacstntungas hc uc mrbc parohctbjh par mrupas gh âtakas gh engramhca y obriaca, fasoubfhs pashhc hc su obpb gh vbfhconb uca y oubtra hfhotrachs rhsphotnvbkhcth. Xca gh fas pafëkhras ghkbyar ncthrîs thÿrnoa hs hf pafnbohtnfhca (OE)c hc hf oubf fas mrupas OE (kacÿkhras) sh gnspachc hcshouhconbs phrnÿgnobs oubsn-ucngnkhcsnacbfhs. Ghinga b quh obgb âtaka gh obriaca prhshctbhcfbzbknhctas oavbfhcths oac fas gas âtakas gh obriaca vhoncas y uca oac uc âtaka gh engramhca, shhsphrbrëb quh hf (OE)c hstuvnhrb hc dbsh khtâfnob yb quh hxnstnrëb uc hfhotrÿc gnspacnifh par obgb mrupa OE

….

Dbjbrga, ßsobr ^. ht bf., ‖Yhvnsnÿc sairh hf trbcsparth gh obrmb hc pafëkhras oacguotarhs‛, Yhvnstboafakinbcb gh dësnob ?8, ca. 9(900?): 95?-957.

±Ouâf phcsbgar mrnhma hxpusa hf rbzacbknhcta dnfasÿdnoa quh gna arnmhc b fas rbzacbknhctas bcthrnarhs1Ghibth tu rhspuhstb hc pfhcbrnb.

B) Pntâmarbs.

I) Bcbxâmarbs.

O) Ghkÿornta.

G) Hkpîgaofhs.

Fas sadnstbs

Ruî sac fas sadnstbs

Fb pbfbirb sadnstb snmcndnob sbina. Pfbtÿc y Brnstÿthfhs sh hxprhsbibc phyarbtnvbkhcth gh fas sadnstbs, parquh

îstas, oac drhouhconb, sh vbfëbc gh sadnskbs pbrb hxpachr sus fhoonachs, bghkâs gh quh oairbibc par sushcshòbczbs. _nc hkibrma, fb enstarnb rhoacaoh b fas sadnstbs hf kîrnta gh ebihr snga fas prnkhraspradhsnacbfhs gh fb hcshòbczb, parquh thcëbc uc prayhota inhc ghdncnga gh hguobonÿc, y parquh fbnkpbrtnonÿc gh fbs kbthrnbs oaka rhtÿrnob, pafëtnob, htoîthrb, sh eboëb gh bouhrga oac pramrbkbsprhvnbkhcth dnjbgas.

Pbrb hcthcghr khjar fb sadëstnob y su hshconb knskb, oacvnhch rhoargbr fbs onroucstbconbs ghf hctarca hc quhsurmh.

2. Hc hf bsphota dnfasÿdnoa, fbs tharëbs bcthrnarhs duhrac tbc vbrnbgbs y apuhstbs quh dâonfkhcth ncguoëbc boacdusnÿc h ncohrtngukirh.

9. Fb shmucgb onroucstbconb duh quh fb prâotnob gh fb ghkaorbonb hc fb saonhgbg bthcnhcsh hstbib hxnmnhcgancgnvnguas prhpbrbgas pbrb hf hjhronona ghf paghr pafëtnoa.

?. Hf oactbota oac atras puhifas phrkntnÿ oacaohr oÿka hrbc sus oastukirhs, sus ncstntuonachs, sus carkbs.Fbs onroucstbconbs khconacbgbs famrbrac quh hctrh fas sadnstbs sh enonhrbc hvnghcths onhrtbs obrbothrëstnobs:

• Hsohptnonska. Hs nkpasnifh quh, snhcga tbc gnvhrsbs fbs tharëbs bcthrnarhs, tagbs thcmbc rbzÿc< par hffa, fbbotntug aifnmbgb bcth gnoeb sntubonÿc hs fb gh hsohptnonska.

• Prhdhrhconb par fas thkbs saonbfhs y pafëtnoas. Hs oacshouhconb gh fb ghkbcgb gh ncdarkbonÿc quh shmhchrÿ bcth fbs cuhvbs prâotnobs pafëtnobs.



97

97

• Ghdhcsb ghf obrâothr oacvhconacbf gh fbs ncstntuonachs y carkbs, tbcta pafëtnobs oaka karbfhs . Hstbobrbothrëstnob tnhch oaka ibsh fb aishrvbonÿc gh fbs gndhrhconbs quh eby hctrh puhifas y hctrh ncgnvnguas,bohrob gh fa quh hs iuhca, justa, htoîthrb.

Pbrb thrkncbr, vhbkas fas trhs bsphotas quh rhsbftbc hc fb sadëstnob:

2. Hs kîtaga gh gnsousnÿc a oactravhrsnb. Oaka tbf, prhshctb tîocnobs gh gnâfama quh oacguohc bf apachcthb sntubonachs bparîtnobs, a shb, b obffhjachs snc sbfngb.

9. Oaka kavnknhcta dnfasÿdnoa, ghdnhcgh hf hsohptnonska y hf suijhtnvnska hc hf phcsbknhcta, y hfrhfbtnvnska hc fbs carkbs pafëtnobs y karbfhs.

?. Hs tbkinîc uc snsthkb gh hguobonÿc. Hc hsth bsphota sh bgvnhrth hc hffb ucb nkpbrtnonÿc pradhsnacbf gh fbhcshòbczb, yb quh sh eboh oac pramrbkbs prhonsas ~ oac dncbfngbghs oacorhtbs. Xcb gh hstbs dncbfngbghs hs,par hjhkpfa, hcshòbr fbs vnrtughs saonbfhs b fas jÿvhchs.

Fb enstarnb rhouhrgb fas cakirhs gh vbrnas sadnstbs< fas kâs ghstbobgas sac: Pratâmarbs, Marmnbs y Obfnofhs,par shr rhprhshctbcths ghf suijhtnvnska mcashafÿmnoa, ghf hsohptnonska tatbf y ghf rhfbtnvnska carkbtnva.

Pratâmarbs gh Bighrb (750-720 b.O.)

Gh îf bdnrkÿ Gnÿmhchs Fbhrona (F. 22: 20):

‖_adnstb, duh gnsoëpufa gh Ghkÿornta hc su onugbg cbtbf. Duh hf prnkhra quh nctraguja fb prâotnob gh oairbr

eacarbrnas par sus fhoonachs, y tbkinîc, par hsta, duh hf prnkhra quh nctraguja hc Mrhonb ucb prâotnob quhca ghih ghsprhonbrsh, puhs bquhffa quh cas ouhstb gnchra fa bprhonbkas kâs quh fa quh sh cas eb rhmbfbga.‛

_u drbsh kâs oîfhirh hs: "Hf eakirh hs fb khgngb gh tagbs fbs oasbs< gh fb hxnsthconb gh fbs quh hxnsthc y ghfb ca hxnsthconb gh fbs quh ca hxnsthc". Hc hstb drbsh, hf tîrknca eakirh tnhch oaka rhdhrhcth b obgbncgnvngua hc pbrtnoufbr y b! eakirh hc mhchrbf, hs ghonr, hstâ ghdhcgnhcga uc suijhtnvnska mcashafÿmnoa ghncgnvnguas y gh hsphonh. Hsta sh oacdnrkb oac atrb gh sus drbshs: "Fbs oasbs sac pbrb tn, oaka b tn th pbrhohquh sac< y sac pbrb kë oaka b kë kh pbrhoh quh sac".

Marmnbs (onrob 750-?=8 b.O.)

_h fh oacaoh oaka Marmnbs Fhactnca, par ebihr cbonga hc Fhacth, _nonfnb. Kbcndhstbib Gnÿmhchs Fbhrona quhb hsth dnfÿsada "sh fh ghih oacsnghrbr oaka hf pbgrh gh fb sadëstnob". _h ncnonÿ hc fb gaotrncb hfhâtnob. Duh hstb

onroucstbconb fb quh fh ncguja b hcshòbr uc hsohptnonska tbc bisafuta quh sh oacvnrtnÿ hc cnenfnska. _upasnonÿc ncofuëb trhs thsns:

2. Cbgb hxnsth (cnenfnska).9. Hc obsa gh quh hxnstnhrb, ca pagrëb shr oacaonga (cnenfnska ghf oacaonknhcta ).?. Hc obsa gh quh hxnstnhrb y pugnhrb shr oacaonga, ca pagrëb shr oakucnobga b fas ghkâs (cnenfnska

hc hf ghonr a hc fb oakucnob

Hf oacjucta gh fbs trhs thsns pbrhoh ncgnobr uc cnenfnska hc mrbga hxtrhka. _nc hkibrma, fb apncnÿc mhchrbf hsquh fb ncthconÿc gh Marmnbs ca hrb ghdhcghr hstb pasnonÿc, snca ebohr hvnghcth fb shrnh gh oactrbgnoonachsquh nkpfnob fb oacohponÿc hfhâtnob ghf shr.

Obfnofhs (v b. O.)

_u gaotrncb sh oacaoh oaka fb tharëb ghf ghrhoea ghf kâs duhrth. Fas sadnstbs hc mhchrbf, ca safbkhcthObfnofhs, sh prhaoupbrac par ncvhstnmbr hf arnmhc y fb cbturbfhzb gh fbs carkbs (pafëtnobs y karbfhs), fa oubfoacstntuyh uca gh fas bsphotas kâs ncthrhsbcths hc hf praifhkb ghf eakirh.

Yhsphota ghf arnmhc gh fbs carkbs, sh ebiëbc prhshctbga bcths gas safuonachs:

2. Hc fb îpaob këtnob sh orhyÿ quh fbs carkbs praohgëbc gh fas gnashs.9. Hctrh fas prhsaorâtnoas, Ehrâofnta apncÿ quh fbs fhyhs pafëtnobs hrbc pbrth ghf arghc ghf Xcnvhrsa<

hrbc hxprhsnÿc ghf prapna famas.

Hc hf phrnaga sadëstnoa, Obfnofhs y Wrbsëkboa ghdhcgnhrac fb oacvhconacbfngbg gh fbs fhyhs, hs ghonr, tbcta fbsncstntuonachs pafëtnobs oaka fbs carkbs karbfhs sac praguota gh bouhrgas hctrh fas prapnas eakirhs. Hsta



98

98

sh oakpruhib aishrvbcga fas gndhrhcths puhifas, yb quh fbs ncstntuonachs y carkbs gh ucas sac gnstnctbs ghfbs ncstntuonachs y carkbs gh fas atras.

Eby quh gnstncmunr gas ÿrghchs fhmbfhs: hf cbturbf y hf brtndnonbf. Hf prnkhra hs hf butîctnoa y, par hsa,nckutbifh< hf shmucga hs oacvhconacbf y, bsë, vbrëb gh ucb saonhgbg b atrb. Pbrb oacaohr fa cbturbf ebirëbquh hfnkncbr fa quh ehkas bprhcgnga< pbrb hsta ghihkas aishrvbr b fas cnòas y b fas bcnkbfhs. Fbaishrvbonÿc gh hstas gas mrupas cas hcshòb quh eby gas carkbs cbturbfhs: fb iúsquhgb ghf pfbohr y hfgakncna ghf kâs duhrth.

_n aishrvbkas b fas bcnkbfhs y hf oakpartbknhcta eukbca cas gbrhkas ouhctb gh quh, hc fb cbturbfhzb, hfphz mrbcgh sh oakh bf oenoa, y, hctrh fas eakirhs, snhkprh hstâ gakncbcga hf kâs duhrth< îsth hs hf quhtnhch hf ghrhoea gh maihrcbr, parquh fb cbturbfhzb fa gatÿ khjar quh b fas ghkâs.










Bgvnhrth quh fas dhcÿkhcas quh sh ghsbrraffbc hc fas âkintas faobf, cbonacbf h ncthrcbonacbfaourrhc ghctra gh uc oacthxta mfaibf ncthrghphcgnhcth.


Ncstruoonachs:

2. Fhh bthctbkhcth y rhdfhxnacb:

‖Fbs hfnths pafëtnobs y phrnagëstnobs fnkntbrac hf gnsoursa sairh _bggbk Eusshnc gurbcth fb muhrrb y hf junonabf nkbmncbrna sairh fas ârbihs-kusufkbchs oacstrunga gnsoursnvbkhcth hc fb gîobgb gh fas aoehctb. Fb

rhoacstruoonÿc ghf ârbih fbgnca phra oactrafbifh …, sh trbcsdarkb pbrb 2>=5 praguota gh fb rhvafuonÿcnsfâknob hc Nrâc. Hf ârbih a hf kusufkâc darkbc ucb knskb nghctngbg sâgnob, dbcâtnob y thrrarnstb: ucghkacna. Paghkas ghonr quh fas úftnkas vhncth bòas ghf snmfa UU y fas prnkhras ghf snmfa UUN, hc hsphonbfghspuîs gh fas bthctbgas ghf 22 gh shptnhkirh gh 9002, hf pbrbgnmkb ghf ârbih-hchknma, sh oacvnhrth bsë

hc fb cuhvb bctëthsns gnsoursnvb y pafëtnob gh Hstbgas Xcngas. … Hsh ghkacna ârbih oaka sumhrnkas brrnibsh hxtnhcgh b atrbs htcnbs b trbvîs gh fb ghkacnzbonÿc ghf Nsfbk. Hc hsth shctnga, pbrb fbs hfnthshstbgaucnghcshs y fas oacsukngarhs khgnâtnoas aoonghctbfhs tagb boonÿc rhbfnzbgb par fasârbihs/kusufkbchs ‟ hf mhcaongna rhbfnzbga par _bggbk Eusshnc, fb vnafhconb hc Nsrbhf y Bdmbcnstâc, fasbtbquhs ghf 22 gh shptnhkirh ‟ sac rhsuftbga ghf dbcbtnska rhfnmnasa nsfâknoa. Wrbs hstb hxpfnobonÿcsnkpfndnobgb ghf ârbih/kusufkâc ghkacnzbga, oacstrungb, gnducgngb y carkbfnzbgb par fas khgnas gh

oakucnobonÿc hstbgaucnghcshs suiyboh ucb kbyar oakpfhjngbg y hstâ, ofbra, fb oakpfnongbg arhspacsbinfngbg gh fb pafëtnob aoonghctbf y hstbgaucnghcshs hc gnoeas oakpartbknhctas.‛

Garns Kbrtëchz Tnzobrracga, ‖Fa quh ca cas gnjhrac gh _bggbk Eusshnc: fb oacstruoonÿc khgnâtnob gh uc ghkacna‛, Oakucnobíïa, këgnb h oacsuka _ïa Pbufa 7, ca. 22 (cavnhkirh gh 900=): 5?

9. Ebz uc hjhronona gh nkbmncbonÿc y hxpfnob ouâf shrëb fb pasturb gh Pratâmarbs, gh Marmnbs y ghObfnofhs rhsphota bf thkb hxpuhsta. Ducgbkhctb obgb ucb gh sus pasturbs brmukhctbcga oac ibshhc fas prnconpnas dnfasÿdnoas gh su phcsbknhcta.



94

94

Pratâmarbs Marmnbs Obfnofhs

Pasturb

Brmukhcta

_ÿorbths (74>-?>> b. O.)

Phrsacbfngbg

_ÿorbths hs uc phrsacbjh pafîknoa. Hc fb enstarnb sh hcouhctrbc trhs vhrsnachs bohrob gh îf. Fb kâs oacaongbhs fb quh cas prhshctb Pfbtÿc, hc ouyas Gnâfamas _ÿorbths bpbrhoh kbmcndnobga. parquh îf hs hf phrsacbjhohctrbf, îf oacguoh fb gnsousnÿc y îf hs qunhc adrhoh fb khjar safuonÿc pbrb fb ouhstnÿc quh sh gnsouth.Hcoactrbkas ucb dnmurb saorâtnob gndhrhcth hc fbs Khkarbifhs gh Jhcadacth. Hc hstb airb, hf butaroacsnghrÿ b _ÿorbths oaka gnmca gh bfbibczb, phra ca hxhcta gh vufmbrngbghs. Fb throhrb vhrsnÿc praohghgh Brnstÿdbchs, qunhc hc Fbs cuihs obfndnob b _ÿorbths oaka uca gh fas sadnstbs. oac nghbs tbc oacdusbs oakafbs cuihs. Gh fbs trhs vhrsnachs fb quh mazb gh bohptbonÿc mhchrbf hs fb prnkhrb.

Duh _ÿorbths qunhc, hc shctnga hstrnota, enza quh hf phcsbknhcta mrnhma oacsnghrbsh hf praifhkb ghf eakirhoaka hf kâs nkpartbcth. Ca hs -gnrëb îf- ncvhstnmbcga fbs oasbs ghf Xcnvhrsa oaka hcoactrbkas fb vhrgbg,snca oacaonîcgacas b casatras knskas. Gh beë su oîfhirh fhkb: "Oacÿohth b tn knska".

Oacvnvnÿ oac fas sadnstbs, phra snhkprh hc oacstbcth fuoeb parquh ca hstbib gh bouhrga oac su hsohptnonska,suijhtnvnska cn rhfbtnvnska carkbtnva. _ÿorbths trbtÿ gh rhstburbr hf vbfar gh fb rbzÿc eukbcb, parquh

phcsbib quh, gh fa oactrbrna, fbs botnvngbghs hsphoëdnob khcth eukbcbs, oaka hf oacaonknhcta, fboakucnobonÿc y fb karbf, ca shrëbc pasnifhs.

Bf biargbr hf praifhkb ghf eakirh fa ghsgaifÿ hc atras gas: ±Hc quî oacsnsth hf oacaonknhcta1 ±Hc quîoacsnsth fb botnvngbg karbf1 Bucquh _ÿorbths cbgb ghjÿ hsornta, sh eb famrbga oacaohr su phcsbknhctancvhstnmbcga hc trhs duhcths: Pfbtÿc, Jhcadacth y Brnstÿthfhs.

Kîtaga y oacaonknhcta

_ÿorbths sh apusa binhrtbkhcth bf suijhtnvnska y bf rhfbtnvnska hc hf oacaonknhcta parquh:

2. _n obgb qunhc vb b hcthcghr gh kbchrb gndhrhcth fa quh hs iuhca, fa justa, htoîthrb, shrëb nkpasnifhfb oakucnobonÿc. Hs chohsbrna quh sh rhstburh hf vbfar ghf fhcmubjh oaka vheëoufa gh snmcndnobonachsaijhtnvbs y vâfngbs.

9. Oaka vhrhkas ghspuîs, sn ca eby oacaonknhcta vâfnga, ca ebirâ onhconb cn karbfngbg, yb quh fb

onhconb hs hf oaknhcza gh fb karbfngbg.Pbrb ffhmbr bf oacaonknhcta eby quh vbfhkas gh uc kîtaga bprapnbga. B hsh kîtaga, _ÿorbths fa ffbkÿkbyîutnob (kbnhuakbn ; gbr b fuz) parquh fb vhrgbg -ghoëb îf- hxnsth ghctra gh casatras knskas y, pbrboacaohrfb, eby quh sbobrfb b fb fuz.

Hf kîtaga saorâtnoa oactnhch gas pbrths: ucb chmbtnvb y atrb pasntnvb. Fb prnkhrb sh ffbkb nracëb y hschmbtnvb parquh su duconÿc hs safbkhcth gh prhpbrbonÿc. Hc hstb pbrth, _ÿorbths, khgnbcth ucb shrnh ghprhmuctbs sairh ghthrkncbga thkb, iusobib quh su ncthrfaoutar bgqunrnhrb fb oaconhconb gh quh ca thcëb



9=

9=

oacohptas prhonsas sairh hf thkb hc gnsousnÿc. Hf nghbf hrb ffhmbr b rhoacaohr quh cbgb sh sbiëb, oaka îfknska fa oacdhsbib hc atrb gh sus drbshs oîfhirhs: "_ÿfa sî quh cbgb sî".

Fb shmucgb pbrth hs pasntnvb, sh ffbkb kbyîutnob y gnsourrëb bsë: khgnbcth fb aishrvbonÿc y h! bcâfnsns ghobsas oacorhtas sh ghsouirëb fa hshconbf ghf bsucta quh sh hstugnbib, oac fa oubf sh darkbib uc oacohpta, ypar úftnka sh darkufbib ucb ghdncnonÿc ghf aijhta. Gnoeb ghdncnonÿc oacthcëb uc oacaonknhcta aijhtnva yucnvhrsbf. Hf aijhta ghdncnga snhkprh hrb ucb vnrtug, par hjhkpfa, hf vbfar, fb justnonb, htoîthrb. Brnstÿthfhs,rhdnrnîcgash b hstb botnvngbg gh _ÿorbths, ghoëb: "_ÿorbths sh hcohrrÿ hc fb hsphoufbonÿc gh fbs vnrtughs

karbfhs y duh h! prnkhra quh ncgbmÿ fbs ghdncnonachs ucnvhrsbfhs gh fas aijhtas".Bobibkas gh vhr oÿka _ÿorbths ncnonbib fb pbrth kbyîutnob ibsâcgash hc uc kîtaga ncguotnva. Ghspuîs ghîf atras dnfÿsadas rhourrnhrac b fb ncguoonÿc, phra oac ucb dncbfngbg gndhrhcth. Par hjhkpfa, Brnstÿthfhs, bfhstugnbr fb ncguoonÿc, fh bsnmcÿ oaka aijhtnva prnconpbf shrvnr pbrb fb ghkastrbonÿc.

Wharëb îtnob

_h oacsnghrb b _ÿorbths oaka h! orhbgar gh fb îtnob, parquh duh hf prnkhra quh tharnzÿ sairh fas oacohptaskarbfhs iâsnoas: fa iuhca y fb vnrtug. _u tharëb îtnob sh oacaoh oaka "ncthfhotubfnska karbf" parquh, oakavhrhkas, snc onhconb ca eby vnrtug.

Hf kÿvnf ghf airbr eukbca tnhch quh shr hf inhc karbf. Hf eakirh ghih prhpbrbrsh gh kbchrb quh bgqunhrbfb vnrtug, fa oubf fh dbonfntbrâ fb prâotnob ghf inhc. Fb prhpbrbonÿc oacsnsth hc thchr oacaonknhctas chohsbrnas.Hf dnc gh fbs boonachs shrâ fb dhfnongbg.

Gh bouhrga oac fbs bdnrkbonachs bcthrnarhs, oubtra sac fas oacohptas quh snrvhc gh ibsh b fb îtnob saorâtnob:dhfnongbg, inhc, vnrtug y onhconb.

Hf tîrknca dhfnongbg tnhch hf shctnga gh "utnfngbg". Gh nmubf kbchrb, "fa iuhca" ghih hcthcghrsh snhkprhvncoufbga b duconachs utnfntbrnbs.

Fb brhtî (a vnrtug) bgqunrnÿ hc _ÿorbths uc cuhva shctnga. Hc fas pahtbs, gnoea tîrknca sh hkpfhbib pbrbghsnmcbr fbs vnrtughs gh fas caifhs. Fas sadnstbs ffbkbibc brhtî b fas îxntas aithcngas par bfmunhc hc fbsbotnvngbghs saonbfhs. Pbrb _ÿorbths. brhtî snmcndnobib "sbihr", phra hs hf sbihr ghf "sbihr ebohr". Hc hsthknska shctnga hkpfhbkas hf tîrknca vnrtug oubcga ghonkas quh hf pnbcnstb U hs uc vnrtuasa ghf pnbca,parquh fa taob kuy inhc.

Pbrb uinobr khjar hf oacaonknhcta quh _ÿorbths ffbkbib "sbihr", rhoarghkas fb gndhrhconb hctrh panhsns y prbxns. Hf prnkhra hs hf sbihr gh praguoonÿc, hs ghonr, hf quh sh chohsntb pbrb praguonr uc aijhta. Hf shmucgahs hf sbihr gh boonÿc, hsta hs, hf sbihr quh sh chohsntb pbrb airbr. Oubcga _ÿorbths shòbfÿ quh fb vnrtug hssbihr, sh rhdhrëb bf sbihr praguotnva.

Pbrb famrbr uc bota iuhca a uc bota justa, sh chohsntb sbihr quî hs fa iuhca y quî hs fa justa. _n ca sh tnhchhsth sbihr ca hs pasnifh uc bota iuhca a uc bota justa. Pbrb quh bfmunhc ebmb inhc zbpbtas, hs chohsbrna quhshpb quî hs uc zbpbta, quî kbthrnbfhs ffhvb, oÿka sh hcsbkifbc, htoîthrb.

Oubcga ucb phrsacb hjhoutb botas quh fas ghkâs ffbkbkas kbfas, hc rhbfngbg hsb phrsacb ca hs kbfb sncanmcarbcth.

BOWNTNGBG GH BPYHCGNZBJH =





Bpfnob gnstnctbs hstrbthmnbs oakucnobtnvbs shmúc qunhchs shbc sus ncthrfaoutarhs, hf oacthxta hc hfquh sh hcouhctrb y fas aijhtnvas quh phrsnmuh.

Hfnmh fbs duhcths gh ncdarkbonÿc kâs rhfhvbcths pbrb uc prapÿsnta hsphoëdnoa y gnsornkncb hctrhhffbs gh bouhrga b su rhfhvbconb y oacdnbinfngbg.

Bpartb puctas gh vnstb oac bphrturb y oacsnghrb fas gh atrbs phrsacbs gh kbchrb rhdfhxnvb.

Kagbfngbg: Wrbibja hc hqunpa.



95

95

Ncstruoonachs:

2. Darkhc hqunpas pbrb hxpachr. Hc ofbsh sh fhs bsnmcbrâ fb hxpasnonÿc gh uca gh fas snmunhcthsdnfÿsadas mrnhmas: _ÿorbths, Pfbtÿc, Brnstÿthfhs.

9. Prhpbrb fb hxpasnonÿc jucta oac tu hqunpa gh bouhrga b fas kbthrnbfhs y fas tnhkpas quh safnonth hfpradhsar a fb pradhsarb. Hs ncgnsphcsbifh quh ncofuybc nkâmhchs.

?. Prhstb bthconÿc b fbs aishrvbonachs quh fhs ebmbc rhsphota b su hxpasnonÿc, tbcta par hf oacthcngaoaka fb darkb (vafukhc gh vaz, ofbrngbg, gakncna ghf thkb, usa bghoubga gh fas kbthrnbfhs).Wagbs fbs aishrvbonachs sac pbrb khjarbr.

7. Oubcga ca th taquh hxpachr, hsouoeb bthctbkhcth y takb catbs. Prhmuctb bohrob gh fas oacohptasquh th ghspnhrthc gugbs. Ghspuîs gh obgb hxpasnonÿc, ghihs shctnr quh yb gakncbs hf thkb.

8. Bf dncbf, sh th phgnrâ ucb hvnghconb gh hsbs catbs. Hc rhfbonÿc oac _ÿorbths, ghsbrraffb oac tu hqunpauc kbpb oacohptubf sairh su phcsbknhcta.

4. Iusquhc ucb fhoturb quh sh rhfbonach oac hf phcsbknhcta gh _ÿorbths. Puhgh shr hxtrbëgb gh fniras,rhvnstbs, phrnÿgnoas, hto. Wrbcsorëibcfb hc hf rhoubgra. Fîbcfb hc ofbsh y hxpfnquhc fb rhfbonÿc.



9>

9>

Wharëb pfbtÿcnob

Fb dnfasadëb gh Pfbtÿc

Hc su airb, Pfbtÿc trbtÿ par prnkhrb vhz tagas fas thkbs gh fas quh sh ebc aoupbga fas dnfÿsadas gh tagas fastnhkpas, ncofuyhcga b fas oacthkparâchas. _nc hkibrma, rhsuftb kuy gnsoutnifh quh su airb dnfasÿdnob shoacsnghrh uc snsthkb, ghinga b quh hf knska thkb sh hxpusa hc vbrnas fumbrhs y, oac drhouhconb, oacvbrnbcths kuy snmcndnobtnvbs. _h bdnrkb quh hf phcsbknhcta gh Pfbtÿc tnhch uc gncbknska prhaoupbga sÿfapar bvbczbr, snc nkpartbrfh fb snsthkbtnongbg cn fb oaehrhconb.

Ca aistbcth, dâonfkhcth sh ghsouirhc hc fb dnfasadëb pfbtÿcnob pastufbgas iâsnoas. Fas trhs prnconpbfhs sac:

2. "Ghsoacdnbczb hc fas shctngas", parquh îstas sÿfa cas pachc hc oactbota oac fa quh hskakhctâcha, yb quh oacstbcthkhcth ghjb gh shr.

9. "Oacdnbczb hc fb rbzÿc", puhsta quh hffb së cas phrknth bohrobkas b aijhtas nckutbifhs.?. "Chohsngbg gh uc kucga nghbf", yb quh hc îf hstbrëb taga fa quh gb shctnga b hstb pbrth shcsnifh gh

fb rhbfngbg.

Gh fas kúftnpfhs thkbs gh fb airb pfbtÿcnob, takbkas bearb sÿfa bquhffas quh hstâc kâs oachotbgas oac hfpraifhkb gh fb cbturbfhzb< b sbihr: hf shr y hf kavnknhcta, aijhtas y shotarhs gh fb rhbfngbg, mrbgas y ofbshsgh oacaonknhcta, y fb cbturbfhzb.

Hf shr y hf kavnknhcta gh fas shrhs

Pfbtÿc, hc hf gnâfama Orbtnfa a gh fas cakirhs, ghspuîs ghf bcâfnsns gh fb rhfbonÿc hctrh fas cakirhs y fbs

oasbs, bgvnrtnÿ quh ca snhkprh eby oarrhspacghconb hctrh hstas gas hfhkhctas y, hctacohs, sh prhmuctÿ: snca hs par khgna gh fas cakirhs, ±ouâf shrâ hf kîtaga bprapnbga pbrb ffhmbr b oacaohr fbs oasbs1 Fbrhspuhstb bpbrhoh hc shmungb: pbrb oacaohr hf shr gh fbs oasbs eby quh nr b hffbs y hstugnbrfbs.

Bf hkpfhbr hf kîtaga gh fb aishrvbonÿc gnrhotb, hkpnhzbc b bpbrhohr fas praifhkbs parquh:

2. Par uc fbga, bfmucas (rhdnrnîcgash b Ehrâofnta), quh ebc aishrvbga fbs oasbs, ffhmbrac b fboacofusnÿc gh quh hstâc hc uc phrphtua dfuja a obkina oacstbcth.

9. Par atra, îf ebiëb bprhcgnga gh _ÿorbths quh fb onhconb a hf oacaonknhcta butîctnoas ghihc thchroaka obrbothrëstnobs fb chohsngbg y fb ucnvhrsbfngbg.

Pfbtÿc, bpayâcgash hc fa shmucga, ncdnrnÿ fa snmunhcth: a ca oacaohkas hf shr gh fbs oasbs, a inhc, snthchkas bfmúc oacaonknhcta gh hsh shr, chohsntbkas supachrfa nckutbifh y phrkbchcth. Hc atrbs pbfbirbs,

pbrb quh ebyb onhconb hs chohsbrna rhoacaohr fb hxnsthconb gh shrhs nckutbifhs y phrkbchcths.Hc hdhota, fa quh snhkprh hstâ obkinbcga, hc shctnga hstrnota, cn hxnsth cn hs aijhta gh oacaonknhcta, yb quh,hctacohs, fa quh phroninrëbkas shrëb fa quh ca hs. Pbrb oakpbmncbr fbs oasbs, Pfbtÿc ghongnÿ rhoacaohr gastnpas gh shrhs: fas obkinbcths, ghcuconbgas par fas shctngas< y fas nckutbifhs, ghsouinhrtas par fb rbzÿc. Hfshr gh hstas úftnkas hs hf shr butîctnoa< hf shr gh fas obkinbcths, par hf oactrbrna, hs uc shr rhfbtnva, puhstaquh úcnobkhcth sac hc fb khgngb hc quh sac oapnb ghf shr gh fas shrhs nckutbifhs.

Hf kavnknhcta hs bfma quh sh gb úcnobkhcth hc fas shrhs obkinbcths< bucquh ca parquh hffas sh kuhvbc bsë knskas, snca parquh rhonihc hf kavnknhcta gh atras shrhs quh sac katarhs (fbs bfkbs).

Fb rhbfngbg y sus aijhtas

Hc hf bpbrtbga bcthrnar vnkas quh hs chohsbrna gnstncmunr gas ofbshs gh shrhs: fas obkinbcths y fasnckutbifhs. Bf oacjucta gh fas prnkhras sh fh ffbkb "hf kucga shcsnifh", parquh sus aijhtas sac

phrohptnifhs par fas shctngas. Bf oacjucta gh fas shmucgas, Pfbtÿc fa ffbkÿ "hf kucga ncthfnmnifh" parquhtbfhs aijhtas sh puhghc obptbr úcnobkhcth par fb ncthfnmhconb, hs ghonr, ca sac shcsnifhs snca ncthfnmnifhs.

Pfbtÿc bdnrkbib quh eby onhrtb bcbfamëb hctrh fas aijhtas y fas gnsoursas quh b hffas sh rhdnhrhc. Fasgnsoursas rhfbonacbgas oac aijhtas hstbifhs h ncthfnmnifhs sac tbkinîc hstbifhs h ncvhconifhs bcth oubfqunhrrhdutbonÿc< knhctrbs quh fas gnsoursas quh sh rhdnhrhc b aijhtas obkinbcths tbc sÿfa sac praibifhs.

Hc hf kucga shcsnifh eby gas ofbshs gh shrhs: fas aijhtas shcsnifhs y fbs nkâmhchs gh hffas. Hf kucgancthfnmnifh, b fb vhz, tnhch gas mrupas gh aijhtas: fas kbthkâtnoas y fbs nghbs. Hjhkpfa gh aijhtaskbthkâtnoas shrëbc hf oubgrbga, hf oëroufa, htoîthrb. Hjhkpfas gh fbs nghbs puhghc shr fb ihffhzb, fb justnonb,htoîthrb.



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Yhsphota gh fbs obrbothrëstnobs gh fas aijhtas bcthrnarhs, Pfbtÿc cas gnja quh:

Fas shrhs ghf kucga shcsnifh sac kutbifhs, phrhohghras, thkparbfhs, nkphrdhotas, knhctrbs quh ...

Fas aijhtas ncthfnmnifhs sac nckutbifhs, suisnsthcths, hthrcas, nckbthrnbf hs, trbsohcghcths bfkucga shcsnifh, phrdhotas.

Fb rhfbonÿc hctrh fbs gas ofbshs gh shrhs ca snhkprh duh hcthcgngb gh fb knskb kbchrb par Pfbtÿc< snchkibrma, fb pasnonÿc quh fh pbrhonÿ khjar hs fb snmunhcth: fas shrhs ghf kucga shcsnifh sac oapnbs gh fasaijhtas ncthfnmnifhs< îstas sac kaghfa rhsphota gh bquîffas.

Bearb, hc oubcta b fbs nghbs, fb apncnÿc mhchrbf sastnhch quh puhghc shr hcthcgngbs hpnsthkafÿmnob yactafÿmnobkhcth. Hc hf prnkhr shctnga, fbs nghbs pfbtÿcnobs ghihc ncthrprhtbrsh oaka ngîctnobs b së knskbs,oaka prnconpnas gh ncthfnmninfngbg y oaka ducgbkhctas gh fb onhconb. Oacsnghrbgbs actafÿmnobkhcth, fbsnghbs sac rhbfngbghs butÿcakbs, suisnsthcths y phrdhotbs, fa oubf fhs phrknth duconacbr oaka kaghfas ghfkucga shcsnifh.

Fas mrbgas ghf oacaonknhcta

Dâonf hs supachr quh sn, oaka yb vnkas, eby oubtra ofbshs gh aijhtas, tbkinîc ebirâ oubtra mrbgas a ofbshsgh oacaonknhcta. Pfbtÿc cas gna ucb hxpfnobonÿc ofbrësnkb gh hsth bsucta y oakhczÿ vbfnîcgash gh ucboakpbrbonÿc quh sh oacaoh oaka "fb bfhmarëb gh fb fëchb".

Pfbtÿc bdnrkbib quh sn b ucb fëchb earnzactbf fb gnvngnkas par fb kntbg, hctacohs gh uc fbga thcgrhkas hfkucga shcsnifh, y ghf atra, hf kucga ncthfnmnifh. Cuhvbkhcth, sn b obgb kntbg fb gnvngnkas hc gas pbrths, hc

fb kntbg quh oarrhspacgh bf kucga shcsnifh thcgrhkas b fas shrhs shcsnifhs yb sus nkâmhchs. Hc fb kntbgquh oarrhspacgh bf kucga ncthfnmnifh hstbrâc, b fb vhz, gas mrupas gh shrhs: fas aijhtas kbthkâtnoas y fbsnghbs.

Hc hf oacaonknhcta, bghkâs gh fb nmcarbconb (âmcanb), fb oubf rhobh sairh hf ca-shr, sh gnstncmuhc oubtramrbgas.

Hf oacaonknhcta quh rhobh sairh hf kucga shcsnifh hs fb apncnÿc (gaxb), fb oubf pbrth gh fbs shcsbonachs, hsobkinbcth y puhgh shr dbfsb. Fb apncnÿc asonfb hctrh fb orhhconb y fb oacjhturb. _h ffbkb oacjhturb oubcgarhobh sairh fbs nkâmhchs ghf kucga shcsnifh. Hf shmucga cnvhf gh fb apncnÿc hs fb orhhconb y îstb sh praguohoubcga phroninkas, ca b fbs nkâmhchs gh fas shrhs shcsnifhs, snca b hffas knskas.

Hf oacaonknhcta quh rhobh sairh fas aijhtas ghf kucga ncthfnmnifh sh ffbkb onhconb ( hpnsthkh). Fb hpnsthkh hs oacaonknhcta ghf shr pfhca, nckutbifh, ncthfnmnifh< par hstb rbzÿc, gnoea oacaonknhcta sh puhgh trbguonrhc prapasnonachs ncvbrnbifhs y vbfhghrbs pbrb taga hspbona y tnhkpa. Fb onhconb tnhch gas mrbgas: hfoacaonknhcta rbonacbf (gnâcanb) y fb nctunonÿc (cahsns). Hf prnkhra hs uc tîrknca khgna hctrh fb apncnÿc y fbnctunonÿc, parquh tagbvëb rhourrh b nkâmhchs, oaka fa ebohc fas mhÿkhtrbs. Fas aijhtas gh fb gnâcanb sac fasncthfnmnifhs gh arghc kbthkâtnoa, hs ghonr, fas gh fb brntkîtnob y fb mhakhtrëb. Fb nctunonÿc hs hf mrbgasuprhka ghf oacaonknhcta. _u aijhta sac fbs nghbs hc së knskbs, hs ghonr, fbs hshconbs ncthfnmnifhs.

Fb oacgnonÿc eukbcb

Hf thkb gh fb oacgnonÿc eukbcb, hc rhfbonÿc oac fb onhconb y fb nmcarbconb, hs uca gh fas kâs nkpartbcths hcfb dnfasadëb pfbtÿcnob< par hstb rbzÿc, pbrb hxpfnobrfa, Pfbtÿc sh vbfnÿ gh ucb gh sus khjarhs bfhmarëbs, fb gh fbobvhrcb.

Hc gnoeb bfhmarëb, Pfbtÿc ghsorninÿ b fas eakirhs oaka prnsnachras hcobghcbgas quh úcnobkhcth puhghcknrbr bf dacga gh fb obvhrcb, gacgh sh vhc rhdfhjbgbs fbs sakirbs gh aijhtas quh pbsbc ghtrâs gh hffas. Hsasaijhtas, bf shr nfukncbgas, prayhotbc su sakirb hc hf dacga gh fb obvhrcb. _n fas prnsnachras sbfnhrbc sh

gbrëbc ouhctb gh quh vnvnhrac hcmbòbgas, parquh orhyhrac quh hstbibc vnhcga fas aijhtas rhbfhs, oubcgahc rhbfngbg sÿfa vnhrac sus sakirbs.

Oac hstb irhvh nctraguoonÿc, fhbkas fb hxpasnonÿc bfhmÿrnob y hf oakhctbrna rhbfnzbgas par hf knska Pfbtÿc.

‖Nkbmncb uc bctra suithrrâcha, quh thcmb hc tagb su facmntug ucb bihrturb quh gî fnirh pbsa b fb fuz, y hchstb obvhrcb eakirhs hcobghcbgas ghsgh fb ncdbconb, gh suhrth quh ca puhgbc kugbr gh fumbr cn vafvhr fbobihzb, b obusb gh fbs obghcbs quh fhs sujhtbc fbs pnhrcbs y hf ouhffa, pugnhcga safbkhcth vhr fas aijhtasquh tnhchc hc drhcth. Ghtrâs gh hffas, b onhrtb gnstbconb y b onhrtb bfturb, supÿcmbsh uc duhma ouya rhspfbcgarfhs bfukirb, y uc obknca hsobrpbga hctrh hsth duhma y fas obutnvas. _upÿc b fa fbrma gh hsth obknca uc



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kura, shkhjbcth b fas tbinquhs quh fas oebrfbtbchs pachc hctrh hffas y fas hsphotbgarhs, pbrb aouftbrfhs fboakincbonÿc y fas rhsarths shorhtas gh fbs kbrbvnffbs quh ebohc.

Dnmúrbth b phrsacbs quh pbsbc b fa fbrma ghf kura ffhvbcga aijhtas gh tagb ofbsh. Fas obutnvas, ±quî atrboasb pagrâc vhr snca fb sakirb gh hsas aijhtas1

_n b uca gh hstas eakirhs sh fh fnirb gh fbs obghcbs y sh fh aifnmb b sbfnr, prnkhra quhgbrëb ghsfukirbga yghspuîs paoa b paoa nrëb gnstncmunhcga fas aijhtas, y ghspuîs vhrëb gnrhotbkhcth fb fuz ghf saf.

^ inhc, kn quhrnga Mfbuoÿc, îstb hs fb nkbmhc gh fb oacgnonÿc eukbcb. Hf bctra suithrrâcha hs hsth kucgavnsnifh< hf duhma quh fh nfukncb hs fb fuz ghf saf< hsth obutnva quh suih b fb rhmnÿc suphrnar y fb oacthkpfb, hshf bfkb quh sh hfhvb ebstb fb hsdhrb ncthfnmnifh.‛

Oacohpta pfbtÿcnoa gh peysns

Hf praifhkb gh fb cbturbfhzb hc Pfbtÿc sh ghsgaifb hc atras trhs< hf shr gh fas shrhs, fb gaifh duconÿc gh fb peysns y fas prnconpnas ghf kucga shcsnifh.

2. Prhmuctbr par fb cbturbfhzb gh fas aijhtas hqunvbfh b prhmuctbr par hf shr gh hsas aijhtas. Ghbouhrga oac fa yb vnsta, hc fb rhbfngbg hxnsthc gas kucgas, hf shcsnifh y hf ncthfnmnifh< phra sn hfpraifhkb sh vb b rhdhrnr b fbs knskbs oasbs quh prhaoupbrac b fas prhsaorâtnoas, hctacohs shrâchohsbrna quh fa rhstrncjbkas b fas shrhs ghf kucga shcsnifh. Hf shr gh hstas shrhs hs kbthrnbf,parquh aoupbc hspbona: hs ncoacsnsthcth parquh hs y ghjb gh shr, hs ghonr, sh mhchrb y sh oarrakph,gbcga bsë fumbr bf ghvhcnr< hs thkparbf, phrhohghra, htoîthrb< hs nkphrdhota.

9. Fb gaifh duconÿc -gh sustrbtuk y gh hshconb- quh hjhroëb fb peysns prhsaorâtnob, bearb quhgbshpbrbgb parquh fb peysns, oaka sustrbtuk, hs fb kbthrnb, phra oaka hshconb hs fb nghb rhsphotnvb.Fas aijhtas ghf kucga shcsnifh safbkhcth sac oapnbs gh fas shrhs butîctnoas quh sac fbs nghbs.

?. Whcnhcga fas shrhs shcsnifhs uc shr quh hs thkparbf, chohsbrnbkhcth eb gh shr obusbga. Fasprnconpnas a fbs obusbs quh oactrniuyhc b su hxnsthconb sac oubtra:

Fb obusb kbthrnbf hs hf shr nkphrdhota ghf quh yb ehkas ebifbga, oac sus obrbothrëstnobs ghncoacsnsthconb y thkparbfngbg.

Fb obusb hdnonhcth, quh pach hc fb hxnsthconb b hstas shrhs, hs hf ghknurma. Hsth shr, ncthfnmhcth yiacgbgasa, hs hf brtëdnoh quh, ghspuîs gh praguonr, pach arghc hc fa praguonga.

Fb obusb hjhkpfbr sac fbs nghbs. Fas aijhtas shcsnifhs hstâc ehoeas snmunhcga hf kaghfa gh fasncthfnmnifhs. Bgvhrtnkas bearb fb gaifh duconÿc gh fbs nghbs rhsphota gh fas aijhtas shcsnifhs< sachshconb y sac kaghfa.

Fb obusb dncbf, a shb, fa quh hf ghknurma prhthcgh bf rhfbonacbr arghcbgbkhcth b tagas fas aijhtasgh fb rhbfngbg, hs fb ihffhzb mfaibf ghf oaskas.

Hf bfkb y hf eakirh

Hc mhchrbf hc hf phcsbknhcta mrnhma, y gh kbchrb hsphonbf hc hf phrnaga ofâsnoa, fb hxnsthconb ghf bfkbcucob duh praifhkb. Fa quh së sh ouhstnacÿ duhrac su cbturbfhzb y sus obrbothrëstnobs. Fbs gnstnctbssafuonachs duhrac oancongnhcga hc takbr oaka pucta gh pbrtngb uca gh hstas gas ehoeas: fb hxnsthconb gh fbvngb hc hf shr eukbca y su botnvngbg oamcasontnvb rbonacbf. _n bf bfkb sh fh rhfbonacb prnconpbfkhcth oac fbhxnsthconb, hctacohs thcgrhkas fb pasnonÿc brnstatîfnob. Pbrb Pfbtÿc, par hf oactrbrna, hf bfkb iâsnobkhcth hsprnconpna ghf oacaonknhcta rbonacbf.

Hc Pfbtÿc, oaka yb sh gnja, su tharëb ohctrbf hrb fb gh fbs nghbs, a tharëb gh fas gas kucgas. Ghsgh hstbphrsphotnvb chohsntbkas hcdaobr hf hstugna ghf bfkb, puhsta quh îstb, bcths gh ucnrsh b ghthrkncbgaouhrpa, prhhxnstnÿ hc hf kucga ncthfnmnifh, gacgh tuva apartucngbg gh oacthkpfbr gnrhotbkhcth fbs nghbs< bf

ucnrsh b uc ouhrpa, pbrb darkbr uc eakirh, fa ebrâ thkparbfkhcth, hc pfbc gh purndnobonÿc y ghspuîsrhmrhsbrâ b su fumbr, quh hs hf kucga gh fbs nghbs. Gh bquë sh ghrnvbc bfmucbs oacofusnachs:

_n hf bfkb prhhxnsth bf ouhrpa y ghspuîs gh su ucnÿc thkparbf oac îf, rhmrhsb bf kucga gh fbs nghbs,hctacohs hf bfkb hs nckartbf.

_n fb ucnÿc ghf bfkb oac hf ouhrpa hs thkparbf, snmcndnob quh gnoeb ucnÿc ca hs sustbconbf, sncaboonghctbf, gh kbchrb quh puhgb sairhvnvnr b fb shpbrbonÿc ghf ouhrpa.

Hf bfkb hs hf prnconpna ghf oacaonknhcta rbonacbf, parquh hffb, hc su prhhxnsthconb, oacaonÿgnrhotbkhcth fbs nghbs, gh kbchrb quh ghspuîs, bf prhshctbrsh bfmucb phrohponÿc shcsnifh, hffb



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rhouhrgb bfma rhfbonacbga oac gnoeb phrohponÿc. Hc atrbs pbfbirbs, hf oacaonknhcta ca hs kâs quhucb rhkncnsohconb.

Pbrb oakpfhtbr fb obrbothrnzbonÿc ghf bfkb, Pfbtÿc fh bsnmcÿ ucb cbturbfhzb trnpbrtntb. Fb pbrth rbonacbf tnhchoaka duconÿc oacaohr y maihrcbr< fb pbrth nrbsonifh hs fb duhcth gh fas shctnknhctas, oaka hf vbfar< fb pbrthoacoupnsonifh hs hf bsnhcta gh fbs pbsnachs y fas bphtntas. Gh hstbs trhs bfkbs, fb prnkhrb hs nckartbf< fbsatrbs gas sac nrrbonacbfhs y kartbfhs.

Gh hstb kbchrb yb paghkas rhspacghr, par fa khcas pbronbfkhcth, b fb prhmuctb: ±Ruî hs hf eakirh1 Îsth

hs ucb sëcthsns gh fas gas kucgas pfbtÿcnoas< hf bfkb hs ucb hctngbg quh pravnhch ghf kucga suprbshcsnifh,knhctrbs quh hf ouhrpa phrthchoh bf kucga shcsnifh. Bfkb y ouhrpa hstâc ucngas boonghctbfkhcth, snhcgahf shmucga ucb prnsnÿc pbrb fb prnkhrb.






_nmuh ncstruoonachs y praohgnknhctas gh kbchrb rhdfhxnvb, oakprhcgnhcga oaka obgb uca gh sus

pbsas oactrniuyh bf bfobcoh gh uc aijhtnva. Hstruoturb nghbs y brmukhctas gh kbchrb ofbrb, oaehrhcth y snctîtnob.


Ncstruoonachs:

2. Hc hqunpas rhgbothc 9 prhmuctbs sairh hf phcsbknhcta gh Pfbtÿc. Wakhc oaka pnh gh prhmuctbbfmucbs gh fbs snmunhcths prapuhstbs:

±Oÿka QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ1

±Par quî QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ1

±Pbrb quî QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ1

±Gh quî kbchrb QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ1

±Ruî snmcndnob QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ19. Yhpraguoh tus prhmuctbs oac sus rhspuhstbs hc hf snmunhcth hspbona:

DNFA_ADËB GH PFBWßC

Prhmuctb 2:

Yhspuhstb:

Prhmuctb 9:

Yhspuhstb:



??

??

?. Hctrhmuhc sus prhmuctbs hc tbrjhtbs inifnamrâdnobs.

7. Wakhc catb gurbcth fb hxpasnonÿc gh Pfbtÿc.

8. Dncbfnzbcga fb hxpasnonÿc, hf pradhsar a fb pradhsarb hfhmnrâ bf bzbr trhs tbrjhtbs pbrb ebohrprhmuctbs bf hqunpa hxpasntar. Hf hqunpa ghihrâ rhspacghr oarrhotbkhcth.

4. Yhpraguoh hc hf snmunhcth hspbona fbs ? prhmuctbs quh sh pfbcthbrac oac sus rhsphotnvbs rhspuhstbs,

rhgbotbgbs gh kaga oarrhota y arghcbga.

DNFA_ADËB GH PFBWßC

Prhmuctb 2:

Yhspuhstb:

Prhmuctb 9:

Yhspuhstb:

Prhmuctb ?:

Yhspuhstb:

Fb dnfasadëb gh Brnstÿthfhs

Gurbcth 90 bòas, Brnstÿthfhs hstuva hc Fb Bobghknb gh Pfbtÿc. Hc uc prnconpna ffhmÿ b snkpbtnzbr oac fbstharëbs gh su kbhstra< phra oacdarkh duh kbgurbcga hc su darkbonÿc onhctëdnoa-dnfasÿdnob, sh bpbrtÿ gh fbsnghbs gh Pfbtÿc, ebstb quh darkufÿ su cuhva snsthkb dnfasÿdnoa sairh fbs snmunhcths ibshs:

Hc apasnonÿc b fb hsouhfb hfhâtnob, y thcnhcga oaka pruhibs fbs hvnghconbs shcsnifhs, bgkntnÿ fbhxnsthconb ghf kavnknhcta y fb pfurbfngbg gh fbs hctngbghs dësnobs.

Hstbib gh bouhrga oac fb tharëb ehrbofnthbcb gh fas apuhstas, parquh hsta fh byugbib pbrb fbhxpfnobonÿc ghf kavnknhcta.

Gh fb dësnob knfhsnb bohptÿ hf pastufbga gh quh hs nkpasnifh quh bfma praohgb gh fb cbgb a ghf ca-shr.

Ca eby gas kucgas oaka prhthcgëb Pfbtÿc. Fas hcths gh fb rhbfngbg ffhvbc hc së knskas fb darkb afb hshconb quh fas eboh shr fa quh sac.

Ghdhcgëb, oaka fa prapusa Bcbxâmarbs, fb hxnsthconb gh ucb ncthfnmhconb arghcbgarb gh fb rhbfngbg.Hsb ncthfnmhconb sh ffbkb bearb "prnkhr katar" a "katar nckÿvnf".



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Prhpbrbonÿc ghf praifhkb gh fb peysns

Pbrb Brnstÿthfhs, ouyb darkbonÿc onhctëdnob duh gh tnpa hxphrnkhctbf (hc fb hsphonbfngbg gh inafamëb), hfpraifhkb gh fb peysns thcëb ucb nkpartbconb rhfhvbcth< phra fa quh kâs fa hstnkufÿ duh hf ehoea gh quh fasprhghohsarhs sÿfa fa trbtbrac ibja fas bsphotas kbthrnbf y khtbdësnoa.

Hc hdhota, oubcga fas prhsaorâtnoas ebifbibc gh fa ncdncnta, gh fas oubtra hfhkhctas a gh fbs eakhakhrnbsoaka arnmhc a sustrbta gh fbs oasbs, sh rhdhrëbc úcnobkhcth b fb obusb kbthrnbf, bucquh ca ebifbibc gh fbdarkb a hshconb, cn kuoea khcas gh fb obusb dncbf gh fb rhbfngbg. Gh nmubf kbchrb, hc oubcta bf kavnknhcta,bfmucas, oaka Hkpîgaofhs, ffhmbrac b ghonr quh hf bkar y hf agna fa praguohc, phra ca hxpfnobc hc quîoacsnsth.

Brnstÿthfhs biargÿ hf praifhkb gh fb cbturbfhzb y ghf kavnknhcta gh kbchrb snsthkâtnob, oaka fa eboëb oactagas fas praifhkbs gh quh sh aoupbib. Oakhczÿ par prhonsbr gas ouhstnachs:

2. ±Ruî sh ghih ncgbmbr oubcga sh eboh ucb ncvhstnmbonÿc1 Brnstÿthfhs enza rhdhrhconb b gas oasbs: fbhxnsthconb ghf ehoea quh cas prhaoupb y fb hxpfnobonÿc obusbtnvb ghf knska. Hc atrbs pbfbirbs, bfncvhstnmbr sairh uc ehoea, prnkhra ghihkas bshmurbkas gh quh tbf ehoea hxnsth< par hjhkpfa, snquhrhkas oacaohr sairh fas hofnpshs gh _af, prnkhra ghihkas prhmuctbkas sn hdhotnvbkhcth hf _afsh hofnpsb a ca. Ghspuîs praohghrhkas b darkufbr fb hxpfnobonÿc obusbtnvb ghf ehoea ouybhxnsthconb yb oakpraibkas.

9.

±Ouâfhs sac fbs obusbs quh sh chohsntbc pbrb quh uc aijhta hxnstb y shb fa quh hs1 Xc oacohptamhchrbf gh obusb, shmúc Brnstÿthfhs, hs hf snmunhcth: hs taga dbotar a onroucstbconb quh oactrniuyhpbrb hf shr a fb praguoonÿc gh bfma. Hc atrbs pbfbirbs, sh ffbkbc obusbs b tagas fas ncthrkhgnashctrh hf katar y hf aijhta. Wagas fas dbotarhs a fbs onroucstbconbs gh quh hstbkas ebifbcga shbmrupbc hc oubtra obthmarëbs gh obusb: kbthrnbf, darkbf, hdnonhcth y dncbf.

Obusb kbthrnbf gh ucb oasb hs fb kbthrnb gh quh hstâ ehoeb< par hjhkpfa, hc ucb hstbtub gh iracoh fb obusbkbthrnbf hs hf iracoh. Obusb darkbf hs fb darkb ncthrnar a hshconb gh ucb oasb, hs ghonr, fb armbcnzbonÿcncthrcb gh sus hfhkhctas oacstntutnvas. Obusb hdnonhcth hs hf bmhcth praguotar< hc hf obsa gh fb hstbtub, hfhsouftar hs fb obusb hdnonhcth. Fb obusb dncbf hs bquhffa hc vnstb gh fa oubf botúb hf bmhcth a sh praguoh hfaijhta< trbtâcgash gh uc pbsha, fa kâs praibifh hs quh fb obusb dncbf shb fb sbfug, hs ghonr, fb phrsacb quhpbshb fa eboh pbrb oacshrvbrsh sbcb.

Fb dësnob (cbturbfhzb y kavnknhcta)

Gnstncmuëb Brnstÿthfhs hf oacaonknhcta hsphoufbtnva ghf oacaonknhcta prâotnoa. Hf prnkhra hstâ ghstncbga b fbvhrgbg< hf shmucga, b fb boonÿc-Gh fbs onhconbs hsphoufbtnvbs fb prnkhrb hs fb dësnob< fb shmucgb, fbskbthkâtnobs< fb throhrb, fb khtbdësnob. Fb dësnob hs fb onhconb quh hstugnb fb peysns, hs ghonr, fb cbturbfhzb,phra hcthcgngb îstb oarca fb oacstntuonÿc gh fas shrhs rhbfhs gatbgas gh kavnknhcta.

Gh fa bcthrnar, paghkas ncdhrnr quh fb dësnob hs fb onhconb quh hstugnb fas shrhs rhbfhs gatbgas gh kavnknhcta,y quh hf hstugna gh fb cbturbfhzb nkpfnob hf hstugna ghf kavnknhcta.

Eby trhs tîrkncas brnstatîfnoas kuy bcâfamas y quh par hsta knska oacvnhch quh fas gnstncmbkasoungbgasbkhcth pbrb kbchjbgas oac prhonsnÿc. Hffas sac: sustbconb, hshconb y cbturbfhzb. Hf tîrkncasustbconb eboh rhdhrhconb bf hfhkhcta oacstntutnva gh uc aijhta, phra oacsnghrbga oaka fa phrkbchcth yquh, b fb vhz, snrvh gh saparth b fas boonghcths y b fbs vbrnbcths quh hc gnoea aijhta puhgb ebihr. Fb hshconb hs hf knska hfhkhcta oacstntutnva, phra bearb oacthkpfbga oaka bquhffa quh bf aijhta fa eboh shr fa quhhs. Fb cbturbfhzb hs hf knska oacstntutnva, phra oacohinga hc su bsphota gncâknoa, hs ghonr, oaka fb duhcth

gh fbs aphrbonachs, fas obkinas a fas kavnknhctas quh sac pasnifhs hc gnoea aijhta.

Pbrkîcnghs rhoebzÿ fb hxnsthconb ghf kavnknhcta parquh hsta supacgrëb hf pbsa ghf ca-shr bf shr. Brnstÿthfhssë bgkntëb fb hxnsthconb ghf kavnknhcta parquh -shòbfbib- trbtâcgash ghf ca-shr eby quh gnstncmunr hf ca-shrbisafuta y hf ca-shr rhfbtnva. Hf prnkhra sh gb oubcga ca sh hs bfma cn sh puhgh ffhmbr b shr hsh bfma< par hfoactrbrna, hf ca-shr hs rhfbtnva oubcga ca sh hs bfma, phra eby pasninfngbg gh ffhmbr b shr hsh bfma.

Hf ca-shr rhfbtnva, hc shctnga hstrnota, oacsnsth hc uc paghr-shr. B hsth paghr-shr Brnstÿthfhs fa ffbkÿ pathconb. Fa apuhsta b pathconb hs hf bota, hf oubf sh ghdnch oaka "fb rhbfnzbonÿc gh fb pathconb". Hf aijhta U



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hs B hc pathconb, oubcga hstâ hc pasninfngbg gh shr B< phra oubcga yb aitnhch rhbfkhcth fb phrdhoonÿc B,hctacohs ghonkas quh hf aijhta U hs B hc bota.

Hf kavnknhcta hs hf pbsa ghf shr pathconbf bf shr botubf, a kâs irhvhkhcth, hs hf trâcsnta gh fb pathconb bfbota. Pbrb bofbrbr hstb ghdncnonÿc, Brnstÿthfhs bdnrkbib quh hf kavnknhcta prapnbkhcth oacsnsth hc ucbbotubfngbg nkphrdhotb, parquh sh gb úcnobkhcth gurbcth fb botubfnzbonÿc gh fb pathconb< oubcga îstb quhgbbotubfnzbgb, yb ca eby kavnknhcta.

Fbs ofbshs gh obkinas a kavnknhctas quh hc fas shrhs rhbfhs sh puhghc gbr par su prapnb cbturbfhzb sac

trhs: gh oubfngbg, gh obctngbg y gh fumbr. B fas prnkhras sh fhs ffbkb bfthrbonÿc< b fas shmucgas, orhonknhcta yghorhonknhcta< y b fas throhras, trbsfbonÿc.

Enfhkardnsrca

Oac hf cakirh gh enfhkardnska sh ghsnmcb fb safuonÿc quh Brnstÿthfhs prapusa pbrb hf praifhkb gh fb peysns.Pbrb ffhmbr b gnoeb safuonÿc, îf pbrtnÿ ghf bcâfnsns ghf kavnknhcta a obkina, hc hf oubf oacourrhc trhshfhkhctas:

2. Hf sujhta ghf obkina, hs ghonr, fa quh phrkbchoh b trbvîs ghf obkina, fa quh rhsuftb bdhotbga par hfobkina. Gnoea hfhkhcta hs fb sustbconb, fb oubf sh kbctnhch ngîctnob b trbvîs gh uc obkinaoubfntbtnva, oubctntbtnva a faobf.

9. Hf hfhkhcta quh ghsbpbrhoh, hs ghonr, hf hfhkhcta quh, ebstb bcths gh ncnonbrsh hf obkina, hxnstëbhc hf aijhta, phra quh bearb tnhch quh ghsbpbrhohr pbrb gbr fumbr bf cuhva hfhkhcta.

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Hf hfhkhcta quh bpbrhoh, hsta hs, hf quh, bf ncnonbrsh hf obkina, hkpnhzb b oacorhtbrsh y quhgbrâoakpfhtbga hc hf úftnka ncstbcth ghf obkina.

Hc fas obkinas boonghctbfhs, hs dâonf nghctndnobr obgb uca gh fas trhs hfhkhctas< par hjhkpfa, hc hf obkinaquh sh aphrb hc hf bmub oubcga îstb pbsb ghf hstbga fëqunga bf hstbga sÿfnga: hf prnkhr hfhkhcta hs hf bmubknskb, parquh hffb phrkbchoh oaka bmub gurbcth hf praohsa ghf obkina. Hf shmucga hfhkhcta (hf quhghsbpbrhoh) hs hf hstbga fëqunga< hf throhr hfhkhcta (hf quh bpbrhoh) hs hf hstbga sÿfnga.

Fb gndnouftbg sh prhshctb hc fas obkinas sustbconbfhs. Îstas, oaka sbihkas, sac bquhffas hc quh eby obkinagh sustbconb, parquh eby oarruponÿc gh fb prnkhrb y mhchrbonÿc gh fb shmucgb. Brnstÿthfhs rhoebzÿ fbenpÿthsns gh quh fb sustbconb quh ghsbpbrhoh pbsh ghf shr bf ca-shr, y gh quh fb cuhvb sustbconb ebmb uctrâcsnta ncvhrsa (ghf ca-shr bf shr).

Hf dnfÿsada mrnhma apncbib quh eby uc hfhkhcta prnkbrna quh phrkbchoh ngîctnoa b trbvîs gh fas obkinassustbconbfhs y quh, par hsta knska, hs hf sujhta ghf obkina. Gnoea hfhkhcta rhonih hf cakirh gh kbthrnb

prnkb (yfh), quh tnhch oaka obrbothrëstnob prnconpbf ca shr uc shr hc pbrtnoufbr, snca hstbr tatbfkhcthncghthrkncbgb. Hc atrbs pbfbirbs, fb kbthrnb prnkb sÿfa hs pathconb.

Hc fas obkinas sustbconbfhs suohgh ucb trbcsdarkbonÿc. Fb kbthrnb prnkb obkinb gh darkb ( kardh), phra cagh ucb darkb mhakîtrnob, snca sustbconbf. Hstb darkb hs hf hfhkhcta botnva, hs fb hshconb, fb oubf ebrâ quh fbkbthrnb prnkb, bf obkinbr gh darkb, shb hstb a bquhffb sustbconb. Whchkas puhs fas hfhkhctas ghf obkinasustbconbf: fb kbthrnb prnkb y fb darkb sustbconbf (yfh-kardh), y gh bquë hf cakirh gh enfhkardnska oac quhsh oacaoh gnoeb tharëb gh Brnstÿthfhs.

_n thchkas hc ouhctb fb gaotrncb gh fbs oubtra obusbs quh sac chohsbrnbs pbrb hxpfnobkas oubfqunhr praohsau aijhta, bgvhrtnkas quh oac fb kbthrnb prnkb y fb darkb sustbconbf safbkhcth thchkas gas obusbs, fbkbthrnbf y fb darkbf< phra dbftbc gas, fb hdnonhcth y fb dncbf. Yhsphota gh fb obusb hdnonhcth gh fas obkinassustbconbfhs y boonghctbfhs, shòbfbib Brnstÿthfhs quh fb prapnb cbturbfhzb, oaka yb quhgÿ bshctbga, hs hfbsphota gncâknoa gh fb sustbconb< hs fb duhcth úftnkb gh fbs aphrbonachs y obkinas quh puhgb ebihr hc hf

aijhta. Hsta ca aistb pbrb quh bmhcths hxtrëcshoas bf aijhta ncthrvhcmbc b vhohs oaka obusb hdnonhcth.

Fb obusb dncbf cbturbf hs fb thcghconb quh eby hc oubfqunhr shr, ebonb fb prapnb phrdhoonÿc khgnbcth fbrhbfnzbonÿc gh sus pathconbfngbghs.

Oac fa bcthrnar quhgb gh kbcndnhsta hf rhbfnska gh Brnstÿthfhs, parquh bf rhoebzbr fb tharëb pfbtÿcnob gh fasgas kucgas, ghdnhcgh quh obgb shr rhbf ffhvb hc së knska su hshconb (fb darkb sustbconbf), a shb, bquhffa quhfa eboh shr fa quh hs.



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Hf katar nckÿvnf

Fb hxnsthconb gh oubfqunhr kavnknhcta, par hf ehoea gh shr uc pbsa gh fb pathconb bf bota, supach fbhxnsthconb gh uc shr quh yb hstî hc bota. Gh nmubf kbchrb, hf kavnknhcta mhchrbf ghf kucga rhqunhrh gh ucshr quh shb hf bmhcth a katar gh hsh kavnknhcta.

Fbs obrbothrëstnobs quh ghih thchr hsb duhcth úftnkb ghf kavnknhcta mhchrbf ghf kucga, iâsnobkhcth, sac:

2. Hsh katar tnhch quh shr hf prnkhra. _n sh oacshrvb hf prnconpna gh quh "taga fa quh sh kuhvh tnhchquh shr kavnga par atra", hctacohs thcgrhkas quh supachr ucb obghcb ncdncntb gh katarhs< phrabuc bsë, sn cncmuca gh hffas praguoh hf kavnknhcta, snca quh tagas fa rhonihc gh atra, hfkavnknhcta quhgbrëb snc hxpfnobonÿc. Hc fb obghcb gh katarhs, par oacsnmunhcth, chohsntbkassupachr quh uca gh hffas hs hf prnkhra, y quh îf hs prapnbkhcth hf butar ghf kavnknhcta.

9. Hf prnkhr katar hs nckÿvnf. Fb rbzÿc hs aivnb: sn bf prnkhr katar fa supachkas kÿvnf, ebirâchohsngbg gh atra quh fa nkpufsh. Ca quhgb, puhs, atrb aponÿc quh fb gh oacohinga nckÿvnf.

?. Hf prnkhr katar tnhch quh shr bota pura. Wagas fas shrhs sac khzofb gh pathconb y bota. ^ hstbkhzofb hs fb quh phrknth quh hstîc gatbgas gh kavnknhcta. Phra sn bf prnkhr katar fa oacohinkasoaka nckÿvnf, chohsntbkas tbkinîc oacohinga oaka bota snc pathconb, hs ghonr, oaka bota pura.

_hmúc Brnstÿthfhs, hf prnkhr katar hs nckÿvnf, hs ghonr, kuhvh snc shr kavnga, parquh îf ca kuhvh oakaobusb hdnonhcth (nkpufsbcga), snca oaka obusb dncbf (btrbyhcga). Hf prnkhr katar, oaka bota pura, hs fbphrdhoonÿc bisafutb< par oacsnmunhcth, îf botnvb hc tagas fas shrhs su thcghconb cbturbf b fb phrdhoonÿc.

Hf bfkb y hf eakirhHc Brnstÿthfhs, nmubf quh hc Pfbtÿc, hf praifhkb ghf eakirh hrb hf praifhkb gh fb peysns, rhdhrnga bf eakirh<par oacsnmunhcth, su safuonÿc supacëb hf hstugna gh fb cbturbfhzb eukbcb. Gnoea hstugna cas pach ghnckhgnbta drhcth b hstb ouhstnÿc: ±Ruî hs hf eakirh1

Hc fb ucngbg ? vnkas quh Brnstÿthfhs, pbrb safuonacbr hf praifhkb gh fb peysns, darkufÿ su tharëb enfhkÿrdnob(a enfhkardnska), shmúc fb oubf tagas fas shrhs tnhchc oaka oacstntutnvas úftnkas gas hfhkhctas fa quh îfffbkÿ kbthrnb prnkb y darkb sustbconbf. Bpfnobcga gnoeb tharëb bf eakirh, îsth sh oaconih oaka ucoakpuhsta gh gas hfhkhctas< uca gh fas oubfhs tnhch fbs obrbothrëstnobs gh fb kbthrnb prnkb, parquh hspbsnva y hs pathconbf< hf atra tnhch fbs obrbothrëstnobs gh fb darkb sustbconbf, hs ghonr, hs bota a obusb ghkavnknhcta.

Fas gas hfhkhctas bcthrnarhs sac, rhsphotnvbkhcth, hf ouhrpa y hf bfkb. Hf eakirh hs ucb cbturbfhzb a ucbhshconb oakpuhstb gh ouhrpa y bfkb, ucngas sustbconbfkhcth. Hc gnoea oakpuhsta hf bfkb hs fb darkb

sustbconbf, parquh hffb ncdarkb bf ouhrpa, hf oubf duconacb oaka kbthrnb prnkb. Hf bfkb, par shr darkb, hstbkinîc hf bota rhsphota ghf ouhrpa, hf oubf, hc hstb ucnÿc, hs hf bsphota pathconbf.

Hf bfkb, shmúc Brnstÿthfhs, hs hf prnconpna gh fb vngb hc tagas fas shrhs armâcnoas< gh nmubf kbchrb, hc hfoakpuhsta eukbca, hf bfkb hs hf prnconpna vntbf. Fas shrhs vnvas hc mhchrbf sac bquhffas quh sac obpbohs ghkavhrsh hspactâchbkhcth, parquh ffhvbc hc së knskas fb obusb gh su kavnknhcta. Hsb obusb a prnconpna ghfkavnknhcta hspactâcha sh ffbkb bfkb. Bf kavnknhcta nckbchcth quh sh gb hc fas shrhs armâcnoas, par suprapnb cbturbfhzb, Brnstÿthfhs fa ffbkÿ vngb.

Hc fb hsobfb gh fas shrhs armâcnoas, hf cnvhf suphrnar oarrhspacgh bf eakirh, parquh su bfkb hs rbonacbf< hstaqunhrh ghonr quh hf bfkb eukbcb hs duhcth gh tagbs fbs botnvngbghs quh oacstntuyhc fas trhs tnpas gh vngbquh oacaohkas: fb vhmhtbtnvb, fb shcsntnvb y fb rbonacbf.

Hf oacaonknhcta

Hf bfkb eukbcb, oaka yb sh gnja, hs fb duhcth gh fbs botnvngbghs vntbfhs quh hc hf eakirh tnhchc fumbr. Xcbgh hstbs botnvngbghs hs fb oamcasontnvb, fb oubf puhgh gbrsh hc hf cnvhf shcsntnva y hc hf rbonacbf. Eby gastnpas gh oacaonknhcta: hf shcsnifh y hf ncthfhotubf.

Hf oacaonknhcta shcsnifh sh praguoh par khgna gh fb shcsbonÿc, quh hs fb dbouftbg par fb oubf uc shr hs obpbzgh shctnr. Gnoea oacaonknhcta, quh snhkprh hs nctuntnva, tnhch oaka aijhta fa pbrtnoufbr y oacorhta, y sÿfahctrb hc boonÿc oubcga hstâ drhcth b ucb oubfngbg shcsnifh. Fb shcsbonÿc sh rhbfnzb hc fas shctngas. Eby gasofbshs gh shctngas, fas hxthrcas y fas ncthrcas.



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Fas shctngas hxthrcas tnhchc oaka aijhta fb phrohponÿc gh ucb oubfngbg shcsnifh, fb oubf puhgh shr prapnb aoakúc. Hf obrâothr shcsnifh prapna gh uc shctnga úcnobkhcth puhgh shr obptbga par hsh shctnga< parhjhkpfa, hf oafar y hf sacnga sac shcsnifhs prapnas, rhsphotnvbkhcth, gh fb vnstb y ghf aëga. Fb oubfngbgshcsnifh oakúc puhgh shr phroningb par gas a kâs shctngas< par hjhkpfa, hf kavnknhcta.

Oaka shctngas ncthrcas, Brnstÿthfhs khconacbib trhs: hf shctnga oakúc, fb nkbmncbonÿc y fb khkarnb. Hfprnkhra phrknth bf sujhta obptbr fbs nkprhsnachs oakuchs. Fb nkbmncbonÿc hs fb obpbongbg gh shctnr bfma sncquh shb chohsbrna hstbr drhcth bf hstëkufa. Fb khkarnb phrknth rhoacaohr bfma oaka bprhehcgnga

bcthrnarkhcth.Hc hf oacaonknhcta shcsnifh ncthrvnhchc trhs hfhkhctas: hf ÿrmbca shcsarnbf, a dbouftbg gh shctnr< fbsoubfngbghs shcsnifhs, a shb, fbs prapnhgbghs gh fas aijhtas obptbgbs oubcga botúb fb dbouftbg shcsarnbf< y fbshcsbonÿc, hs ghonr, hf bota quh rhbfnzb fb dbouftbg bf bprhehcghr ucb oubfngbg shcsnifh.

Hf atra mrbga gh oacaonknhcta hs hf ncthfhotubf, ffbkbga bsë parquh sh bgqunhrh b trbvîs ghf hcthcgnknhcta.Hsth oacaonknhcta hs suphrnar bf shcsnifh, phra ca puhgh gbrsh snc îsth.

_hmúc Brnstÿthfhs, cbgb eby hc hf hcthcgnknhcta quh ca sh ebyb gbga bcths hc fas shctngas. Hc. atrbspbfbirbs, fb hxphrnhconb shcsnifh hs fb úcnob duhcth arnmncbf ghf oacaonknhcta.

Hf oacaonknhcta ncthfhotubf hs gh obrâothr ucnvhrsbf< pbrb hsta, hs chohsbrna quh hf hcthcgnknhcta (bmhcth)rhbfnoh bistrboonachs sairh fas gbtas bgqunrngas par fas shctngas. Bsë, hf hcthcgnknhcta ghskbthrnbfëzb fasgbtas shcsarnbfhs, prhsoncgh gh pbrtnoufbrngbg y oacorhonÿc, quhgâcgash úcnobkhcth oac fas rbsmas

hshconbfhs< gh hstb kbchrb oacstruyh ucb darkb ucnvhrsbf quh sh ffbkb oacohpta.Pasthrnarkhcth, Brnstÿthfhs hstugnÿ hf oacaonknhcta ncthfhotubf hc su bsphota fÿmnoa, hs ghonr, trbtÿ ghprhonsbr fbs hstruoturbs ghf oacaonknhcta quh puhghc oacsnghrbrsh oaka oarrhotbs.

BOWNTNGBG GH BPYHCGNZBJH >




Btrniutas gh fbs oakphthconbs mhcîrnobs: Hxprhsb nghbs y oacohptas khgnbcth rhprhshctbonachs fncmöëstnobs, kbthkâtnobs a mrâdnobs.





Ncstruoonachs:

2. Wakhc catb gurbcth fb hxpasnonÿc gh Brnstÿthfhs.

9. Hfbiarhc uc oubgra sncÿptnoa quh sncthtnoh fb hxpasnonÿc. Pfâskbfa hc hf snmunhcth hspbona:



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?. Fhbc hf thxta hc pfhcbrnb y rhspacgbc fb ncthrrambcth:

‖Oubcga dbftb fb vnstb ebirâ quh iusobr hstrbthmnbs pbrb quh fb oarrhfbonÿc oac atras shctngas cas bohrquhcbf oacaonknhcta a rhoacaonknhcta gh fb kbthrnb oubcga îstb ca tnhch ucb darkb prhonsb.

Ebirëb quh gbr b fas cnòas fb apartucngbg gh ghsbrraffbr fb obpbongbg gh gnsornkncbr hctrh fbs vbrnbgbskbcndhstbonachs gh fb kbthrnb. _h ghihrëbc orhbr hspbonas hc fas prnkhras bòas hsoafbrhs pbrb trbibjbrsairh hstbs gnsornkncbonachs shcsa-phrohptnvbs< bfma sh eboh phra puhgh shr quh sh hoeh gh khcas ucbsnsthkbtnzbonÿc kâs rnmurasb, kâs prhonsb. Xcb bcîogatb quh pagrëb nfustrbr fa bcthrnarkhcth gnoea aourrnÿvnsntbcga ucb hxpasnonÿc gh afarhs oac uc bknma onhma, hc fb quh sh cas gbib b afhr drbsquntas oac hshconbs<îstbs hvaobibc hf aijhta gh gacgh praohgëbc, ebiëb bfmucas quh afëbc b fnkÿc, b rasb, b hsouhfb, b nmfhsnb,hto.< pasthrnarkhcth cas bohrobkas b uc pbchf gacgh bf fbga gh obgb oafar ebiëb su oarrhspacgnhcthtbrrnta gh hshconb, hf rhfbtnva bf oafar vhrgh afëb b enhrib< hf kbrrÿc, b tnhrrb, hto. Kn oakpbòhra bohrtÿbghoubgbkhcth tagas fas oafarhs prnkbrnas, khcas hf bzuf. Hsth hs pasnifhkhcth uca gh fas hjhkpfas quhcas kuhstrb fb nkpartbconb gh fb oarrhspacghconb hctrh fas shctngas y cas ncgnob ucb vëb par gacgh shmunr.‛

Fafb Ibrgnsb, Oÿka hcshòbr b fas cnòas onhmas b gniujbr , Kbgrng: Cbonacbf gh Onhmas Hspbòafhs (ACOH), s/p.

±Ouâf phcsbgar hfbiarÿ hf brmukhcta dnfasÿdnoa quh snrvnÿ gh ibsh b hsth tnpa gh hstugnas1 Ducgbkhctb turhspuhstb

B) _ÿorbths.

I) Pfbtÿc.

O) Brnstÿthfhs.





BOWNTNGBG NCWHMYBGAYB 2






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_nmuh ncstruoonachs y praohgnknhctas gh kbchrb rhdfhxnvb, oakprhcgnhcga oaka obgb uca gh suspbsas oactrniuyh bf bfobcoh gh uc aijhtnva.

Hfnmh fbs duhcths gh ncdarkbonÿc kâs rhfhvbcths pbrb uc prapÿsnta hsphoëdnoa y gnsornkncb hctrh

hffbs gh bouhrga b su rhfhvbconb y oacdnbinfngbg. Hstruoturb nghbs y brmukhctas gh kbchrb ofbrb, oaehrhcth y snctîtnob.

Kagbfngbg: Botnvngbg ncgnvngubf.

Ncstruoonachs:

2. Yhvnsb y oarrnmh tagbs fbs botnvngbghs quh rhbfnzbsth gurbcth hf ifaquh. Thrndnob quh hstîc oakpfhtbsy oukpfbc oac fas rhquhrnknhctas gh arghc y fnkpnhzb.

9. Bfmucbs gh hstbs botnvngbghs oacsnstnhrac hc fb iúsquhgb y hf oakhctbrna gh uc thxta quh shrhfbonacbrb oac hf thkb (BGB). Bòbgh thxtas b fbs botnvngbghs gacgh ca th duhrac safnontbgas (BGB).Yhgbotb fas oakhctbrnas rhsphotnvas.

?. Hctrhmb hstbs botnvngbghs b kaga gh partbdafna gh hvnghconbs hc fb dhoeb boargbgb oac tu gaohcth.

Ornthrna 2 Hvnghconb rhquhrngb Pacghrbonÿc

Nghctndnob fas prnconpbfhs pfbcthbknhctas dnfasÿdnoas arnmncbgashc fb Mrhonb Bctnmub, oac fb dncbfngbg gh hkpfhbr oacohptasiâsnoas gh fb dnfasadëb hc ncthrrambcths gh fb vngb oatngnbcb,khgnbcth hf oakhctbrna gh thxtas y hf arghcbknhcta ghncdarkbonÿc.

Partbdafna ghhvnghconbs.

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Prhdarkbf Yhohptnva Yhsafutnva Butÿcaka Hstrbtîmnoa

Hctrhmb ucpartbdafna ghhvnghconbs oac

khcas gh fb kntbggh fbs botnvngbghsgh bprhcgnzbjh(khcas ghf 80%)rhbfnzbgbs gurbcthhf ifaquh.

Fbs botnvngbghsghsbrraffbcoacohptasdnfasÿdnoasarnmncbgas hc fbMrhonb Bctnmub,ghstbobcga b susphcsbgarhs kâsghstbobgas.

Fh dbftÿ oarrhmnrvbrnbs botnvngbghs.

Bòbgh thxtas oacsus rhsphotnvasoakhctbrnas bkhcas gh fb kntbg

Hctrhmb ucpartbdafna ghhvnghconbs oac fb

kntbg gh fbsbotnvngbghs ghbprhcgnzbjh (80%)rhbfnzbgbs gurbcthhf ifaquh.


Fh dbftÿ oarrhmnrbfmucbsbotnvngbghs.

Bòbgh thxtas oacsus rhsphotnvasoakhctbrnas b fbkntbg gh fbs

Hctrhmb ucpartbdafna ghhvnghconbs oac fb

kbyar pbrth gh fbsbotnvngbghs ghbprhcgnzbjh (=0%)rhbfnzbgbs gurbcthhf ifaquh.


Oarrnmh susbotnvngbghs.

Bòbgh thxtas oacsus rhsphotnvasoakhctbrnas b fbkbyar pbrth gh fbsbotnvngbghs gh

Hctrhmb ucpartbdafna ghhvnghconbs oac obsn

tagbs fbsbotnvngbghs ghbprhcgnzbjh (>0%)rhbfnzbgbs gurbcthhf ifaquh.



Bòbgh thxtas oacsus rhsphotnvasoakhctbrnas b obsntagbs fbsbotnvngbghs gh

Hctrhmb ucpartbdafna ghhvnghconbs oac

tagbs fbsbotnvngbghs ghbprhcgnzbjh(200%) rhbfnzbgbsgurbcth hf ifaquh.



Bòbgh thxtas oacsus rhsphotnvasoakhctbrnas btagbs fbsbotnvngbghs gh



70

gh fbs botnvngbghsgh bprhcgnzbjh(khcas ghf 80%).

Hctrhmb ucpartbdafnaghsarghcbga, phrafnkpna.

Ca sh bphmb b fbsncgnobonachsdarkbfhs ghfgaohcth. Ncthctbbpfbzbr fb hctrhmb.

botnvngbghs ghbprhcgnzbjh (80%).

Hctrhmb ucpartbdafna uc tbctaghsarghcbga, phrafnkpna.

Ca sh bphmb b

tagbs fbsncgnobonachsdarkbfhs ghfgaohcth. Ncthctbbpfbzbr fb hctrhmb.

bprhcgnzbjh (=0%).

Hctrhmbpuctubfkhcth ucpartbdafnaarghcbga y fnkpna,oac tagas fas gbtasgh nghctndnobonÿc.

_h bphmb b fbsncgnobonachsdarkbfhs ghfgaohcth.

bprhcgnzbjh (>0%).

Hctrhmbpuctubfkhcth ucpartbdafnaarghcbga y fnkpna,oac tagas fas gbtasgh nghctndnobonÿc.

_h bphmb b fbsncgnobonachsdarkbfhs ghfgaohcth.

bprhcgnzbjh(200%).

Hctrhmbpuctubfkhcth ucpartbdafnaarghcbga y fnkpna,oac tagas fas gbtas

gh nghctndnobonÿc._h bphmb b fbsncgnobonachsdarkbfhs ghfgaohcth.

?0% 80% =0% >0% 200%

Famras Bsphotas b khjarbr

Ncgnobonachs rhsphota bf darkbta gh hctrhmb

±RXÎ BPYHCGË HC H_WH IFARXH1

2. Yhspacgh ghibja gh obgb rhoubgra.

±Ruî sbiëb sairh

dnfasadëb bcths ghhsth oursa1

±Ruî botnvngbghs

ghsbrraffî pbrbbprhcghr dnfasadëb1

±Ruî bprhcgë

sairh dnfasadëb1

Documents

Borrador de la Guía Didáctica de Filosofía/Introducción a las Doctrinas Filosóficas