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CONSORT y STROBE LISTAS DE COMPROBACIÓN PARA AUTORES,
REVISORES Y EDITORES DE REVISTAS MÉDICAS
Ferran Torres, MD, PhD [email protected] Biostatistics & Data Management Platform IDIBAPS-Hospital Clinic Barcelona Biostatistics Unit. School of Medicine. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB)
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Agradecimientos
Iñaki Pérez Estadístico Infectious Diseases Service Hospital Clínic de Barcelona
Abiguei Torrents Estadística USEM Hospital Clínic de Barcelona
Caridad Pontes MD PhD Farmacòloga Clínica Hospital Parc Taulí
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http://ferran.torres.name/edu/sp Documentación
• Presentación pps // pdf
• Algunas referencias y material adicional – Recomendaciones y normativas científicas
• Consort: resumida, // general, // no-inferioridad • Moose: Meta-análisis estudios Observacionales • Quorum => PRISMA: Meta-análisis Ensayos Clínicos • Strobe: Observacionales • Stard: Pruebas Diagnósticas • Medicina clínica:
Monográfico Med Clin. Comprobación tipos de estudios. - Ensayos Clínicos (CONSORT) // Recomendaciones reguladoras
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http://www.equator-network.org/resource-centre/library-of-health-research-reporting/
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Biostatistical/Methodological guidances http://ferran.torres.name/download/material_comun/guias.htm
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n “Los métodos estadísticos no son un sustituto del sentido común y la objetividad. Nunca deberían estar dirigidos a confundir al lector, sino que deben ser una contribución importante a la claridad de los argumentos científicos”
SJ Pocock. Br J Psychiat 1980; 137:188-190
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Listas de comprobación
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CONSORT (Consolidated Standards o Reporting Trials)
n En 1996 un grupo multidisciplinario propuso la adopción de una
serie de recomendaciones para la preparación y publicación de artículos sobre ensayos clínicos.
n Ayudar a los autores a mejorar la publiación de EECC n Se trata básicamente de una lista de comprobación de 22
items y un diagrama de flujo n Promovida por BMJ, JAMA y Lancet (New Englang) n World Association of Medical Editors (WAME) n Council of Science Editors (CSE) n International Committee of Medical Journal Editors n (ICMJE or Vancouver Group) n Revisión 2001
The paper does not currently conform to the CONSORT requirements.
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CONSORT
Nivel Tipo de estudio Ventajas Criterios de validez
1 ECA Solo diseños que permiten la detección
del efecto adverso cuando el efecto adverso es similar al evento que el tratamiento trata de evitar.
Poder insuficiente para detectar efectos adversos a no ser que el diseño sea especifico para su detección.
2 Cohorte Recogida prospectiva de datos , cohorte definida Depende críticamente de la exactitud en el seguimiento
clasificación y medición.
3 Caso-control Barato y generalmente rápido de hacer Los sesgos de selección y recuerdo pueden dar problemas, las relaciones temporales pueden no estar claras
4 Estudios fase 4 Pueden detectar eventos raros y graves si son lo suficientemente extensos
Ausencia de grupo control o control no emparejado
Depende críticamente de la exactitud en el seguimiento clasificación y medición.
5 Series de casos Baratos y generalmente rápidos Generalmente pequeño tamaño muestral, el sesgo de selección puede ser un problema, ausencia de grupo control
6 A propósito de un / unos casos
Depende críticamente de la exactitud en el seguimiento clasificación y medición.
Generalmente pequeño tamaño muestral, el sesgo de selección puede ser un problema, ausencia de grupo control
n Mejor diseño para valorar eficacia y efectividad n El lector no debe inferir lo que probablemente se ha aplicado
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Ckecklist
CONSORT Checklist of items to include when reporting a randomized trial
CONSORT Checklist of items to include when reporting a randomized trial
PAPER SECTION And topic
Item Description
TITLE & ABSTRACT 1 How participants were allocated to interventions (e.g., "random allocation", "randomized", or "randomly assigned").
INTRODUCTION Background
2 Scientific background and explanation of rationale.
METHODS Participants
3 Eligibility criteria for participants and the settings and locations where the data were collected.
Interventions 4 Precise details of the interventions intended for each group and how and when they were actually administered.
Objectives 5 Specific objectives and hypotheses. Outcomes 6 Clearly defined primary and secondary outcome measures and,
when applicable, any methods used to enhance the quality of measurements (e.g., multiple observations, training of assessors).
Sample size 7 How sample size was determined and, when applicable, explanation of any interim analyses and stopping rules.
Randomization -- Sequence generation
8 Method used to generate the random allocation sequence, including details of any restrictions (e.g., blocking, stratification)
Randomization -- Allocation
concealment
9 Method used to implement the random allocation sequence (e.g., numbered containers or central telephone), clarifying whether the sequence was concealed until interventions were assigned.
Randomization -- Implementation
10 Who generated the allocation sequence, who enrolled participants, and who assigned participants to their groups.
Blinding (masking) 11 Whether or not participants, those administering the interventions, and those assessing the outcomes were blinded to group assignment. When relevant, how the success of blinding was evaluated.
Statistical methods 12 Statistical methods used to compare groups for primary outcome(s); Methods for additional analyses, such as subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses.
RESULTS
Participant flow
13 Flow of participants through each stage (a diagram is strongly recommended). Specifically, for each group report the numbers of participants randomly assigned, receiving intended treatment, completing the study protocol, and analyzed for the primary outcome. Describe protocol deviations from study as planned, together with reasons.
Recruitment 14 Dates defining the periods of recruitment and follow-up. Baseline data 15 Baseline demographic and clinical characteristics of each group.
Numbers analyzed 16 Number of participants (denominator) in each group included in each analysis and whether the analysis was by "intention-to-treat". State the results in absolute numbers when feasible (e.g., 10/20, not 50%).
Outcomes and estimation
17 For each primary and secondary outcome, a summary of results for each group, and the estimated effect size and its precision (e.g., 95% confidence interval).
Ancillary analyses 18 Address multiplicity by reporting any other analyses performed, including subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses, indicating those pre-specified and those exploratory.
Adverse events 19 All important adverse events or side effects in each intervention group.
DISCUSSION Interpretation
20 Interpretation of the results, taking into account study hypotheses, sources of potential bias or imprecision and the dangers associated with multiplicity of analyses and outcomes.
Generalizability 21 Generalizability (external validity) of the trial findings. Overall evidence 22 General interpretation of the results in the context of current
evidence.
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Diagrama de flujo
CONSORT Checklist of items to include when reporting a randomized trial
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Item 1 & 2
PAPER SECTION And topic
Item Description
TITLE & ABSTRACT 1 How participants were allocated to interventions (e.g., "random allocation", "randomized", or "randomly assigned").
INTRODUCTION Background
2 Scientific background and explanation of rationale.
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Item 3 METHODS Participants
3 Eligibility criteria for participants and the settings and locations where the data were collected.
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MÉTODOS PAPER SECTION
And topic Item Description
METHODS Participants
3 Eligibility criteria for participants and the settings and locations where the data were collected.
Interventions 4 Precise details of the interventions intended for each group and how and when they were actually administered.
Objectives 5 Specific objectives and hypotheses. Outcomes 6 Clearly defined primary and secondary outcome measures and,
when applicable, any methods used to enhance the quality of measurements (e.g., multiple observations, training of assessors).
Sample size 7 How sample size was determined and, when applicable, explanation of any interim analyses and stopping rules.
Randomization -- Sequence generation
8 Method used to generate the random allocation sequence, including details of any restrictions (e.g., blocking, stratification)
Randomization -- Allocation
concealment
9 Method used to implement the random allocation sequence (e.g., numbered containers or central telephone), clarifying whether the sequence was concealed until interventions were assigned.
Randomization -- Implementation
10 Who generated the allocation sequence, who enrolled participants, and who assigned participants to their groups.
Blinding (masking) 11 Whether or not participants, those administering the interventions, and those assessing the outcomes were blinded to group assignment. When relevant, how the success of blinding was evaluated.
Statistical methods 12 Statistical methods used to compare groups for primary outcome(s); Methods for additional analyses, such as subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses.
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Item 5 Objectives 5 Specific objectives and hypotheses.
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Objetivos: Tipo de comparación
§ Superioridad
§ Equivalencia
§ No-inferioridad
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Item 5 Under CONSORT arrangements for non-inferiority trials it is considered conventional to report the OT results as the primary analysis and the ITT population as a secondary measure. The authors reported the results the other way round yet there is no explanation.
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Poblaciones : Rol de las poblaciones
n Estudios confirmatorios (pivotales): n Poblaciones: ITT y PP n Comparar y discutir los resultados de los dos análisis n Cuando los resultados del análisis de las dos poblaciones
son similares, se incrementa la confianza (robustez) en los resultados del estudio
n La exclusión de una proporción substancial de sujetos de la población PP, puede poner en duda la validez del estudio
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MÉTODOS PAPER SECTION
And topic Item Description
METHODS Participants
3 Eligibility criteria for participants and the settings and locations where the data were collected.
Interventions 4 Precise details of the interventions intended for each group and how and when they were actually administered.
Objectives 5 Specific objectives and hypotheses. Outcomes 6 Clearly defined primary and secondary outcome measures and,
when applicable, any methods used to enhance the quality of measurements (e.g., multiple observations, training of assessors).
Sample size 7 How sample size was determined and, when applicable, explanation of any interim analyses and stopping rules.
Randomization -- Sequence generation
8 Method used to generate the random allocation sequence, including details of any restrictions (e.g., blocking, stratification)
Randomization -- Allocation
concealment
9 Method used to implement the random allocation sequence (e.g., numbered containers or central telephone), clarifying whether the sequence was concealed until interventions were assigned.
Randomization -- Implementation
10 Who generated the allocation sequence, who enrolled participants, and who assigned participants to their groups.
Blinding (masking) 11 Whether or not participants, those administering the interventions, and those assessing the outcomes were blinded to group assignment. When relevant, how the success of blinding was evaluated.
Statistical methods 12 Statistical methods used to compare groups for primary outcome(s); Methods for additional analyses, such as subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses.
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Outcomes: Variable principal
n Primary variable, ‘target’ variable, primary endpoint
n La variable capaz de proporcionar la mayor evidencia clínicamente relevante y convincente directamente relacionada con el principal objetivo del ensayo
n Única n Tamaño de la muestra dimensionado para esta
variable
End Points
The primary study end points were proportion of patients with plasma HIV viral load below 200
copies/mL and proportion of patients with CD4 above 200 cells/µL at 36 months.
Secondary end points were the incidence of side effects, qualitative analysis of the
immunological reconstitution, disease progression and death.
The sample size was calculated on the basis of immunological end point. The sample size was
computed to detect differences in the CD4+ lymphocytes of 50 cells/µL at week 48, assuming a
mean increase of 200 cells/µL (SD 70) in the arm wth a better immunologic response.
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Outcomes: Variables Secundarias
n Medidas de soporte en relación al objetivo principal n Medidas de los efectos relacionados con objetivos
secundarios n Su número debería estar limitado n Se han de considerar sólo como análisis exploratorio
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Outcomes: Ejemplo(1) Torneo Roland Garros 1999
1ª Ronda Carlos Moyá vs Markus Hipfl
Moyá Hipfl
Juegos Totales Ganados 22 24Puntos Totales Ganados 147 1461er Servicio 62% 69%Aces 5 3Doble Faltas 4 5% Ganadores con el 1er Servicio 63 de 95 = 66% 61 de 96 = 64%% Ganadores con el 2º Servicio 25 de 58 = 43% 20 de 44 = 45%Ganadores (incluyendo el Servicio) 30 56Errores No Forzados 62 75Puntos de Break Ganados 6 of 21 = 29% 6 of 27 = 22%Aproximaciones a la red 48 of 71 = 68% 29 of 41 = 71%Velocidad del Servicio más Rápido 200 KPH 193 KPHPromedio Velocidad 1er Servicio 157 KPH 141 KPHPromedio Velocidad 2º Servicio 132 KPH 126 KPH
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Outcomes: Ejemplo(2) Torneo Roland Garros 1999
1ª Ronda Carlos Moyá vs Markus Hipfl
Set 1 2 3 4 5Carlos Moyá 3 1 6 6 6Markus Hipfl 6 6 4 4 4
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Outcomes: Multiplicidad
n Múltiples criterios de evaluación n Múltiples tiempos de observación (medidas repetidas)
n Múltiples comparaciones: • diseños con más de dos tratamientos
• subgrupos
Error tipo I (α) =
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MÉTODOS PAPER SECTION
And topic Item Description
METHODS Participants
3 Eligibility criteria for participants and the settings and locations where the data were collected.
Interventions 4 Precise details of the interventions intended for each group and how and when they were actually administered.
Objectives 5 Specific objectives and hypotheses. Outcomes 6 Clearly defined primary and secondary outcome measures and,
when applicable, any methods used to enhance the quality of measurements (e.g., multiple observations, training of assessors).
Sample size 7 How sample size was determined and, when applicable, explanation of any interim analyses and stopping rules.
Randomization -- Sequence generation
8 Method used to generate the random allocation sequence, including details of any restrictions (e.g., blocking, stratification)
Randomization -- Allocation
concealment
9 Method used to implement the random allocation sequence (e.g., numbered containers or central telephone), clarifying whether the sequence was concealed until interventions were assigned.
Randomization -- Implementation
10 Who generated the allocation sequence, who enrolled participants, and who assigned participants to their groups.
Blinding (masking) 11 Whether or not participants, those administering the interventions, and those assessing the outcomes were blinded to group assignment. When relevant, how the success of blinding was evaluated.
Statistical methods 12 Statistical methods used to compare groups for primary outcome(s); Methods for additional analyses, such as subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses.
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Tamaño muestral: Cálculo
§ Magnitud del efecto del tratamiento a detectar (θ) § Variabilidad de las observaciones (σ2 ) § Errores Tipo I y II (α y β) § Relación:
donde C es una función de α y β: f(α, β)
¿Qué información se necesita para la estimación del tamaño de la muestra ?
C × σ2 Tamaño de la muestra = (θ)2
2
2
2 ( , )( )E C
sn fX X
α β=−
pE (1 - pE) + pC (1 - pC) n = f(α, β) (pE - pC)2
Variable contínua Variable discreta
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Delta
2. The non-inferiority assessment level is enormous. The 12.5% could be
on either side therefore the treatment effect could be very large and still be
considered equivalent.
Two-tailed 95% Confidence Interval Delta
• -10% if higher cure rate >90%• -15% if higher cure rate 80-89%• -20% if higher cure rate 70-79%
CI excludes delta and includes 0 “There are situations…which may fit the
statistical definition of equivalence, will, nonetheless be clinically unacceptable”
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MÉTODOS PAPER SECTION
And topic Item Description
METHODS Participants
3 Eligibility criteria for participants and the settings and locations where the data were collected.
Interventions 4 Precise details of the interventions intended for each group and how and when they were actually administered.
Objectives 5 Specific objectives and hypotheses. Outcomes 6 Clearly defined primary and secondary outcome measures and,
when applicable, any methods used to enhance the quality of measurements (e.g., multiple observations, training of assessors).
Sample size 7 How sample size was determined and, when applicable, explanation of any interim analyses and stopping rules.
Randomization -- Sequence generation
8 Method used to generate the random allocation sequence, including details of any restrictions (e.g., blocking, stratification)
Randomization -- Allocation
concealment
9 Method used to implement the random allocation sequence (e.g., numbered containers or central telephone), clarifying whether the sequence was concealed until interventions were assigned.
Randomization -- Implementation
10 Who generated the allocation sequence, who enrolled participants, and who assigned participants to their groups.
Blinding (masking) 11 Whether or not participants, those administering the interventions, and those assessing the outcomes were blinded to group assignment. When relevant, how the success of blinding was evaluated.
Statistical methods 12 Statistical methods used to compare groups for primary outcome(s); Methods for additional analyses, such as subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses.
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MÉTODOS PAPER SECTION
And topic Item Description
METHODS Participants
3 Eligibility criteria for participants and the settings and locations where the data were collected.
Interventions 4 Precise details of the interventions intended for each group and how and when they were actually administered.
Objectives 5 Specific objectives and hypotheses. Outcomes 6 Clearly defined primary and secondary outcome measures and,
when applicable, any methods used to enhance the quality of measurements (e.g., multiple observations, training of assessors).
Sample size 7 How sample size was determined and, when applicable, explanation of any interim analyses and stopping rules.
Randomization -- Sequence generation
8 Method used to generate the random allocation sequence, including details of any restrictions (e.g., blocking, stratification)
Randomization -- Allocation
concealment
9 Method used to implement the random allocation sequence (e.g., numbered containers or central telephone), clarifying whether the sequence was concealed until interventions were assigned.
Randomization -- Implementation
10 Who generated the allocation sequence, who enrolled participants, and who assigned participants to their groups.
Blinding (masking) 11 Whether or not participants, those administering the interventions, and those assessing the outcomes were blinded to group assignment. When relevant, how the success of blinding was evaluated.
Statistical methods 12 Statistical methods used to compare groups for primary outcome(s); Methods for additional analyses, such as subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses.
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Item 12
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Métodos Estadísticos : Especificación
Planificación clínica
Elaboración Protocolo
Diseño CRD
Recogida y gestión de datos
Base de datos definitiva
Informe estadístico
Informe clínico
Plan de análisis Estadístico (PAE)
ó Database Lock Report (DBLR)
y Durante la reunión de
Cierre de base de datos
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Missing Data/ Imputación
n ¿Qué son los datos faltantes? ¡¡¡¡¡ Casillas vacías en los CRDs!!!
n Viola el principio de la estricto principio de la ITT n La posibles causas son, por ejemplo :
n Pérdida de seguimiento n Fracaso o éxito terapéutico n Acontecimiento adverso n Traslado del sujeto
n No todas las razones de abandono están relacionadas con el tratamiento
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RESULTADOS
PAPER SECTION And topic
Item Description
RESULTS Participant flow
13 Flow of participants through each stage (a diagram is strongly recommended). Specifically, for each group report the numbers of participants randomly assigned, receiving intended treatment, completing the study protocol, and analyzed for the primary outcome. Describe protocol deviations from study as planned, together with reasons.
Recruitment 14 Dates defining the periods of recruitment and follow-up. Baseline data 15 Baseline demographic and clinical characteristics of each group.
Numbers analyzed 16 Number of participants (denominator) in each group included in each analysis and whether the analysis was by "intention-to-treat". State the results in absolute numbers when feasible (e.g., 10/20, not 50%).
Outcomes and estimation
17 For each primary and secondary outcome, a summary of results for each group, and the estimated effect size and its precision (e.g., 95% confidence interval).
Ancillary analyses 18 Address multiplicity by reporting any other analyses performed, including subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses, indicating those pre-specified and those exploratory.
Adverse events 19 All important adverse events or side effects in each intervention group.
DISCUSSION Interpretation
20 Interpretation of the results, taking into account study hypotheses, sources of potential bias or imprecision and the dangers associated with multiplicity of analyses and outcomes.
Generalizability 21 Generalizability (external validity) of the trial findings. Overall evidence 22 General interpretation of the results in the context of current
evidence.
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Item 13
How many patients were screened and what were the principal reasons people did not get randomised - this is a requirement of CONSORT?
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RESULTADOS
PAPER SECTION And topic
Item Description
RESULTS Participant flow
13 Flow of participants through each stage (a diagram is strongly recommended). Specifically, for each group report the numbers of participants randomly assigned, receiving intended treatment, completing the study protocol, and analyzed for the primary outcome. Describe protocol deviations from study as planned, together with reasons.
Recruitment 14 Dates defining the periods of recruitment and follow-up. Baseline data 15 Baseline demographic and clinical characteristics of each group.
Numbers analyzed 16 Number of participants (denominator) in each group included in each analysis and whether the analysis was by "intention-to-treat". State the results in absolute numbers when feasible (e.g., 10/20, not 50%).
Outcomes and estimation
17 For each primary and secondary outcome, a summary of results for each group, and the estimated effect size and its precision (e.g., 95% confidence interval).
Ancillary analyses 18 Address multiplicity by reporting any other analyses performed, including subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses, indicating those pre-specified and those exploratory.
Adverse events 19 All important adverse events or side effects in each intervention group.
DISCUSSION Interpretation
20 Interpretation of the results, taking into account study hypotheses, sources of potential bias or imprecision and the dangers associated with multiplicity of analyses and outcomes.
Generalizability 21 Generalizability (external validity) of the trial findings. Overall evidence 22 General interpretation of the results in the context of current
evidence.
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Item 15
Reviewer(s)' Comments to Author:
Reviewer: 1 Comments to the Author
This retrospective study addresses a pressing question, namely if XXX may influence response XXX. I would suggest some revisions:
1) there are numerous typographical errors in the manuscript, please correct.
2) please show p-values comparing baseline values
3. The authors should not undertake baseline comparison testing.
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Item 16
72% (60-81%) 88% (78-93%) 65% (51-75%)
65% (51-75%)
83 Patients at risk
70 37 21 14
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Poblaciones
PP
Población ITT
Población de seguridad
Población aleatorizada
Toma de medicación
Mínima valoración eficacia
Desviaciones de protocolo
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Poblaciones : Ejemplo
All-randomized Patients with a randomization code
1208 (100%)
Safety Receiving Any Study Medication
1190 (99%)
Intent to treat Receiving Study medication and a Baseline VA
1186 (98%)
Per-protocol …and without a Major Protocol Violation
1144 (95%)
Per Protocol Week 54 observed …and with a Week 54 VA
1055 (87%)
Patients withdrawing before treatment
Patients without Baseline VA
No Major Protocol Violation E.g., Cataract E.g., Only a Baseline VA
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RESULTADOS
PAPER SECTION And topic
Item Description
RESULTS Participant flow
13 Flow of participants through each stage (a diagram is strongly recommended). Specifically, for each group report the numbers of participants randomly assigned, receiving intended treatment, completing the study protocol, and analyzed for the primary outcome. Describe protocol deviations from study as planned, together with reasons.
Recruitment 14 Dates defining the periods of recruitment and follow-up. Baseline data 15 Baseline demographic and clinical characteristics of each group.
Numbers analyzed 16 Number of participants (denominator) in each group included in each analysis and whether the analysis was by "intention-to-treat". State the results in absolute numbers when feasible (e.g., 10/20, not 50%).
Outcomes and estimation
17 For each primary and secondary outcome, a summary of results for each group, and the estimated effect size and its precision (e.g., 95% confidence interval).
Ancillary analyses 18 Address multiplicity by reporting any other analyses performed, including subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses, indicating those pre-specified and those exploratory.
Adverse events 19 All important adverse events or side effects in each intervention group.
DISCUSSION Interpretation
20 Interpretation of the results, taking into account study hypotheses, sources of potential bias or imprecision and the dangers associated with multiplicity of analyses and outcomes.
Generalizability 21 Generalizability (external validity) of the trial findings. Overall evidence 22 General interpretation of the results in the context of current
evidence.
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Item 17
22
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Item 17
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RESULTADOS
PAPER SECTION And topic
Item Description
RESULTS Participant flow
13 Flow of participants through each stage (a diagram is strongly recommended). Specifically, for each group report the numbers of participants randomly assigned, receiving intended treatment, completing the study protocol, and analyzed for the primary outcome. Describe protocol deviations from study as planned, together with reasons.
Recruitment 14 Dates defining the periods of recruitment and follow-up. Baseline data 15 Baseline demographic and clinical characteristics of each group.
Numbers analyzed 16 Number of participants (denominator) in each group included in each analysis and whether the analysis was by "intention-to-treat". State the results in absolute numbers when feasible (e.g., 10/20, not 50%).
Outcomes and estimation
17 For each primary and secondary outcome, a summary of results for each group, and the estimated effect size and its precision (e.g., 95% confidence interval).
Ancillary analyses 18 Address multiplicity by reporting any other analyses performed, including subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses, indicating those pre-specified and those exploratory.
Adverse events 19 All important adverse events or side effects in each intervention group.
DISCUSSION Interpretation
20 Interpretation of the results, taking into account study hypotheses, sources of potential bias or imprecision and the dangers associated with multiplicity of analyses and outcomes.
Generalizability 21 Generalizability (external validity) of the trial findings. Overall evidence 22 General interpretation of the results in the context of current
evidence.
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El impacto de CONSORT (1)
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El impacto de CONSORT (2)
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Listas de comprobación
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Strobe
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Strobe : Cheklist (1)
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Strobe : Cheklist (2)
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Strobe : Exemples
27
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Epidemiological journals
60%
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Exposure Variables
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OB
E
55 55
Confounders
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
56 56
Factores de confusión
d=6%
No fumadores
d=0%
Fumadores
d=1.2%
29
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
57
Subgroups & Simpson’s Paradox
Experimental Controln (%) n (%)
ALL Succes 70 (70%) 60 (60%)Failure 30 (30%) 40 (40%)
100 100
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
58
Subgroups & Simpson’s Paradox cont.
Experimental Controln (%) n (%)
MALE Succes 10 (33%) 24 (40%)Failure 20 (67%) 36 (60%)
30 60
FEMALE Succes 60 (86%) 36 (90%)Failure 10 (14%) 4 (10%)
70 40
Experimental Controln (%) n (%)
ALL Succes 70 (70%) 60 (60%)Failure 30 (30%) 40 (40%)
100 100
30
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
59 59
Confounders
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
60 60
Confounders
31
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
61 61
Statistical estimates and inference
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
62 62
Effect Modifiers
32
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
63 63
Effect Modifiers
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
64 64
Effect Modifiers
33
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
65 65
Multiple Analyses
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
66 66
Study Size
34
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
67
“The Emperor’s New Perspective (Clothes)”
n “He thought it better to continue the illusion that anyone who couldn’t see his clothes was either stupid or incompetent.” – H.C. Anderson
n Sometimes, the higher the “authority” of the source, the less its perspective can be trusted as being valid and unbiased.
CO
NSO
RT
and
STR
OB
E
68
n Gracias por su atención!!
http://ferran.torres.name/edu/uic