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www.thelancet.com  Vol 370 August 25, 2007 639

We declare that we have no conflict of interest.

1 Human Rights Watch. Out of sight: endemic abuse and impunity in Papua’scentral highlands. Human Rights Watch 2007; 19: 1–81.

2 Brundige E, King W, Vahali P, et al. Indonesian human rights abuses in WestPapua: application of the law of genocide to the history of Indonesiancontrol. Allard K. Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic. NewHaven: Yale Law School, 2004.

3 Wing J, King P. Genocide in West Papua? The role of the Indonesian stateapparatus and a current assessment of the Papuan people. Sydney and Jayapura: West Papu a Project at the Cen tre for Peace and Conflict Stud ies,2005. 

4 Environmental Investigation Agency and Telapak. The last frontier: illegal

logging in Papua and China’s massive timber theft. London and Jakarta:Environmental Investigation Agency and Telapak, 2005: 1–27.

5 Blair D, Phillips D. Indonesia Commission: peace and progress in Papua.New York: Council of Foreign Relations, 200 3: 76.

6 Diani H. Health: a specter for Irian Jaya. Jakarta PostAug 21, 2000: 5.

7 Butt L, Numbery G, Morin J. The smokescreeen of culture: AIDS and theIndigenous in Papua, Indonesia. In: Jones R, Finau SA, eds. Pacific healthdialogue: Guam and health transition in the Pacific. Waimauku: ResourceBooks, 2002; 9: 283–89.

Where have all the bees gone?

Beekeepers have been returning to their hives only tofind them deserted. Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is

the name given to this strange disappearance of bees.

Stranger still, no dead bees are found, but honey and

pollen remain. The effects of CCD can be massive, with

some beekeepers reporting losses of 50–90% of bees.1 

The problem has been reported across North America,

and, more recently, in European countries, including

France, Sweden and Germany.2

Several theories have been proposed to explain

CCD. Potential suspect pathogens include the Nosema 

parasite and  Aspergillus fungal infections. Bees couldbe more susceptible to disease when their immune

systems are weakened by antibiotics or stresses caused

by apiary overcrowding, poor nutrition, or migratory

stress, because commercial bees are often transported

over long distances for pollination.3 Pesticides have

also been suggested as a cause of CCD, particularly

nicotinoids such as imidacloprid.4 These compounds

have been shown to be safe for honeybees under

field conditions,5 although the sublethal effects are

disputed.

Much hype ensued when a study at Landau University

implicated cell-phone use with CCD. However, co-

author of that study, Jochen Kuhn, is quoted as saying

that there is no proof that electromagnetic radiation

is the cause.6 Global warming has also been blamed,

because bees maintain hive temperature within 3°C, and

varying temperatures affect the bees’ ability to perform

their communicative waggle dance.7 However, CCD is

not a new phenomenon, with records of mysteriously

abandoned hives dating back to 1869.2

Bees are the major pollinators of a wide range of crops, including almonds, cherries, pears, melons, and

cucumbers.8 This role means that they have a massive

commercial value. As well as beekeepers suffering

financially with replacement costs and loss of revenue,

there may well be wider consequences for us all, because

the supply of crops might dwindle. Einstein is often,

though controversially, quoted to have said that without

the bee, mankind would have but 4 years to live.6

 Jessica HamzelouUniversity College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK

 j.hamzelou@ucl.ac.uk

I declare that I have no conflict of interest.

1 Frazier M, van Engeldorp D, Caron D. Colony collapse disorder. Apiary Newsin Illinois May, 2007. http://www.agr.state.il.us/programs/bees/CCD.pdf (accessed Aug 14, 2007).

2 Underwood RM, van Engelsdorp D. Colony collapse disorder: have we seenthis before? Bee Culture. http://www.beeculture.com/content/ColonyCollapseDisorderPDFs/7%20Colony%20Collapse%20Disorder%20Have%20We%20Seen%20This%20Before%20-%20Robyn%20M.%20Underwood%20and%20Dennis%20vanEngelsdorp.pdf (accessed Aug 15,2007).

3 Pettis J, van Engelsdorp D, Cox-Foster D. Colony Collapse Disorder WorkingGroup: pathogen sub-group progress report. May 12, 2007. http://maarec.cas.psu.edu/CCDPpt/PathogenSub-GroupProjectMay142007.pdf (accessedAug 15, 2007).

4 Cummins J. Requiem for the honeybee. April 24, 2007. http://www.i-sis.

org.uk/requiemForTheHoneybee.php (accessed Aug 15, 2007).5 Maus C, Curé G, Schmuck R. Safety of imidacloprid seed dressings to honey

bees: a comprehensive overview and compilation of the current state of knowledge. Bull Insectol 2003; 56: 51-57. http://www.bulletinof insectology.org/pdfarticles/vol56-2003-051-057maus.pdf (accessedAug 15, 2007).

6 Sylvers E. Case of the disappearing bees creates a buzz. International HeraldTribune April 22, 2007. http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/04/22/news/wireless23.php (accessed Aug 15, 2007).

7 Tautz J, Maier S, Groh C, Rössler W, Brockmann A. Behavioural performancein adult honey bees is influenced by the temperature experienced duringtheir pupal development. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100: 7343–47.

8 Maheshwari, JK. Endangered pollinators. EnviroNews January, 2003.http://isebindia.com/01_04/03-01-3.html (accessed Aug 15, 2007).

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