English Syntax

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Ciencias de la Educación, Mención Inglés

Dra. Rosario María Burneo

BIMESTRE: First bimester

TEXTO GUIA:

AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SYNTAXBy Jim Miller

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Linguistics

Phonology

Syntax Semantics

Morphology

Syntax deals with how words are put together to form phrases; how phases are joined to form clauses; and how clauses form sentences.

Syntax enables speakers to compose complex messages in order to communicate effectively.

UNIT ONE: HEADS AND MODIFIERS

The head of a phrase is the word that carries the most meaning.A modifier provides extra information about the head word.

Houses These old houses

The houses in my town

Modification

According to Generative Grammar, Modification is the use of a word

or structure to tell more about the person, thing, action or quality

being modified.

****************Heads and modifiers build different types of phrases

Noun phrase: the large houseAd. phrase: very sadPrep. Phrase: in the gardenVerb Phrase: work hard

The head word is the one that controls all other words in the

phrase.The beautiful painting on the wall

‘painting’ is the head word‘beautiful’ and ‘on the wall’ are modifiers which draw attention to a particular item.

Types of Modifiers Modifiers are of two types:Complements are obligatoryAdjuncts are optional

Martha bought a book for Mike last week C (DO) Ad (PP

Phrases and ClausesA phrase is a unit of meaning, which enables speakers to refer to persons, things, actions, events , places, times and other situations.A clause is a larger structure formed basically by two main constituents: noun phrase (subject) and verb phrase (predicate).

UNIT TWO: Constituent StructureThe way words form larger structures showing meaning. A constituent is a word or string of words expressing meaning.

Ecuadorian tropical forest has a rich variety of animals

NP: Ecuadorian tropical forest VP: has a rich variety of animals

Tests to identify phrases1. Transposition.

Constituents can be moved from one

position in the clause to another without altering meaning.

Last Sunday, I went to the churchI went to the church last Sunday

2. Substitution

It shows that a single word can substitute for a string of words hanging together as a constituent. We put the books on the deskWe put the books there

2. SubstitutionA single word can substitute for a string of words hanging together as a constituent.

We put the books on the tableWe put the books there

3. Ellipsis

It deletes the second occurrence of the same constituent when two clauses are joined by the conjunction ‘and’.

•My dog killed a rat•My dog ate the rat

•My dog killed a rat and ate it

Unit three: ConstructionsPhrases, clauses and sentences are built out of smaller units according to particular patterns:The player jumped into the field NP VP player = play + er The player = det + nounJumped into the field = verb + PPInto de field = P + NP

Criteria regarding constructions:

Different constructions enable speakers to signal what they are doing with a particular structure to perform different speech acts as assertions, questions, or commands. Speakers and writers need a variety of constructions with different functions to use the language effectively in speaking and writing.

CopulaVerb BE, look,

seem, etc.

Non-copulaOther ordinary

verbs

Types of constructions

Both, copula and non-copula constructions cn be declarative,

interrogaive and imperativeMartha bought a new car

Did Martha buy a new car?Buy a new car

Non-copula clauses including transitive verbs can be transformed into passives.

A new car was bought by Martha

Active and Passive Constructions

Active constructions focus on the doer of the action. They can be transitive or intransitive.

Martha bought a carPassive constructions focus on the object and

they can be built only around transitive verbs.A new car was bought by Martha

4. Imperative constructions do not

have an overt subject listen to me 5. The existential construction is

used to introduce new entities in discourse and has the ‘explective there’ in subject position. There is a boy in the yard

The various types of constructions are interrelated among them. For example,

starting with a declarative clause:

Mike bought a present for Elizabeth It can be transformed into a question:

Did Mike buy a present for Elizabeth? And so on…………..

Word Classes:

Nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, etc

Denotation is the relationship between a given word and the set of entities to which it can be applied.

Then we can distinguish between words that have denotation (express meaning) and words that do not.

Word Classes:

Nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, etc

Denotation is the relationship between a given word and the set of entities to which it can be applied.

Then we can distinguish between words that have denotation (express meaning) and words that do not.

Content words

They have denotation; it is to say, that they express meaning; They apply to people things, places, actions, states, properties and situations (noun, verbs, adjectives, adverbs).

Grammatical words They are also called “function words”. They are used as links to join content words. The definite and indefinite articles, demonstrative adjectives, auxiliaries, among others belong to this group.

CRITERIA TO RECOGNIZE PHRASES

• MORPHO-SYNTACTIC CRITERION

• SYNTACTIC CRITERION

• SEMANTIC CRITERION

1.Morpho-syntactic criterion

Derivational suffixes create new lexical

items as in

Child (noun) Childish (adjective)

Inflectional suffixes

express grammatical information, such as ‘plural’ or –ing forms

Dog dogs

Syntactic criterion A noun can occur in different positions (left and right) in relation to the verb Nouns allow an article to their left; but adjectives do not. Some nouns can be pluralized, but Adjectives cannot.

Semantic criterion

- It deals with meaning (dictionary and speaker´s meaning)

- What speakers do with words; it refers to the principle that ‘when speakers perform speech acts, they also perform actions.

E.G: speakers ask, assert, issue commands, describe, narrate, etc.

A speech act is any word or string of words that expresses meaning

Speakers use ‘speech acts:

to assertto refer

to predicateto issue a command

Speech Acts

The LexiconThe lexicon is the set of all words in a language that are registered in a

dictionary.

- Content Words- Function words

Verbs• Each individual verb might take different

words as complements or adjuncts. I lost my book in the park last

night Complements are obligatory modifiers,

which typically occur next to the verb: my book (direct object, complement)

• Adjuncts are optional. • They provide extra information.• They do not occur immediately after

the verb I lost my book in the park last night in the park and ‘last night’ (adverbials

functioning as adjuncts)

Subcategorization

• Intransitive verbs I walk (every morning)• Transitive verbs Mark likes potatoes• Ditransitive verbs Mike gave Elizabeth a present

Transitive directional verbs We gave some advice to Peter

Copula and linking verbs) Betty is a doctor Betty seems sad

Selectional Restrictions on verbs

Lexical verbs impose restrictions on the type of structure that can occur to their left or right:

Mike killed a tiger Sam walks fast You put the book on the table He looks tired

Selectional Restrictions on Nouns

They refer to the roles assigned to nouns in a clause.

• Subject = Agent• Direct object = patient

Mr. Jones built this house

ClausesA clause contains basically a noun

phrase and a verb phrase.

Each clause:1. Has a finite (marked for person and

number) or non-finite verb (unmarked)

2. The verb takes one or more complements;

3. Each clause might show aspect;

4. Each clause expresses mood (indicative, interrogative, imperative);

Main and Subordinate Clauses

- Main clauses express full meaning.

- Subordinate clauses must be attached to a main clause to express full meaning.

Sentences contain more than one clause

Compound Mary cooks lunch and Sam sets the

table Complex

Sam believes that his house is haunted

Types of subordinate clauses

1. As complements of verbs: He regretted that he has visited Paula

As complements of nouns:

They have accepted the theory that our country is very poor.

Relative ClausesThey modify nouns

The book which you gave Laura is interesting.

The boy who is at the door is

very smart

Adverbial clauses They modify other clauses; they are

treated as adjuncts:Reason: I went home because I was tired

Time: She was in Rome when the accident happened.

Condition: I can help you if you need it

Concession: Even though Sam was very sad, he did not cried.

Relative and complement clauses

• In relative clauses, the complementizer THAT can be replaced by WHICH.

This is the car that you gave me This is the car which you gave me

In complement clauses, the word THAT can not be replaced

by a WH-word:

Liz likes the idea that I will quit smoking

* Liz likes the idea which I will quit smoking

Thank youGod Bless

You

Questions?

Mgs. Rosario María Burneormburneo@utpl.edu.ecPhone: 2570275 Ext.2326Tutoring: 13:00 to 15:00, Monday - Friday