CAPTULO 6La economa poltica del comercio internacionalCopyright 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin

UNA DCADA DE LUCES Y SOMBRAS Avances en el frente econmico Restablecimiento del crecimiento econmico Institucionalidad macroeconmica fuerteMenores dficits fiscales, menor inflacinAceleracin del crecimiento de las exportacionesAtraccin de flujos importantes de inversin extranjera directaIntegracin regional Expansin exportaciones agropecuarias y minerasExportacin de manufacturas

Aspectos negativosEl crecimiento econmico ha sido insuficiente e inestable; las crisis financieras han sido frecuentesLento crecimiento de la productividad; macroeconoma poco propicia para la reconversin productivaLa tasa de inversin es todava baja; rezago de la industria manufactureraEspecializacin en productos poco dinmicos dentro del comercio internacionalDeterioro estructural de los trminos de intercambioMayor heterogeneidad estructural de los sectores productivosLa relacin entre crecimiento y dficit comercial se ha deteriorado

DEBIL RELACIN EXPORTACIONES - CRECIMIENTO

6-*Qu es la realidad poltica? Del comercio internacional?El libre comercio se produce cuando los gobiernos no intentan restringir lo que los ciudadanos pueden comprar a otro pas o lo que pueden vender a otro pas.Mientras que muchas naciones estn nominalmente comprometidos con el libre comercio, tienden a intervenir en el comercio internacional para proteger los intereses de los grupos polticamente importantes

6-*Cmo hacer los gobiernos? Intervenir en los mercados?Los gobiernos utilizan diversos mtodos para intervenir en los mercados incluidos Aranceles - Impuestos que gravan la importacin que aumentan efectivamente el costo de los productos importados en relacin con los productos nacionales.

Los aranceles especficos - aplicados como un cargo fijo por cada unidad de un bien importado.

6-*Cmo hacer los gobiernos? Intervenir en los mercados?Subvenciones - pagos del gobierno a los productores nacionales.Las subvenciones ayudan a los productores nacionales competir contra las importaciones extranjeras de bajo costo ganar los mercados de exportacin. Los consumidores normalmente absorben los costos de los subsidios.Cuotas de Importacin - restringen la cantidad de un bien que puede ser importado a un pas.Los contingentes arancelarios - un hbrido de una cuota y un arancel que se aplica un arancel ms bajo para las importaciones dentro del contingente que a las personas mayores de la cuota Una renta cuota - el beneficio adicional de que los productores hacen cuando la oferta est limitada artificialmente por una cuota de importacin

6-*Cmo hacer los gobiernos? Intervenir en los mercados?Hay dos argumentos principales para la intervencin gubernamental en el mercado: Los argumentos polticos - que se ocupen de la proteccin de los intereses de ciertos grupos dentro de una nacin (normalmente los productores), a menudo a expensas de otros grupos (normalmente los consumidores) Los argumentos econmicos - abordan el fomento del patrimonio total de la nacin - beneficia tanto a los productores y consumidores.

6-*Cules son los argumentos polticos de la intervencin gubernamental?La proteccin de puestos de trabajo - la razn poltica ms comn para las restricciones comerciales los resultados de las presiones polticas de los sindicatos o de las industrias que estn "amenazados" por parte de productores extranjeros ms eficientes, y tienen ms influencia poltica de los consumidores.

Proteger industrias consideradas importantes para la seguridad nacional - industrias como la aeroespacial o la electrnica son a menudo protegidos porque se considera importante para la seguridad nacional.Tomar represalias a la competencia extranjera desleal - cuando los gobiernos toman, o amenazan con tomar acciones especficas, otros pases pueden eliminar las barreras comerciales si los gobiernos amenazados no hacia abajo, las tensiones pueden escalar y nuevas barreras comerciales pueden ser promulgado

6-*Cules son los argumentos econmicos para la intervencin del Estado?El argumento de la industria naciente - una industria debe ser protegido hasta que pueda desarrollarse y sea viable y competitiva a nivel internacional aceptado como justificacin de las restricciones comerciales temporales derivadas de la OMC.Pregunta: Cundo es una industria "grande"? Los crticos argumentan que si un pas tiene el potencial para desarrollar una posicin competitiva viable sus empresas deben ser capaces de recaudar fondos necesarios sin el apoyo adicional del gobierno

6-*Cules son los argumentos econmicos para la intervencin del Estado?La poltica comercial estratgica - en los casos en que puede haber importantes primeras ventajas de organizador, los gobiernos pueden ayudar a las empresas de sus pases a alcanzar estas ventajas los gobiernos pueden ayudar a las empresas superar las barreras de entrada en sectores en los que las empresas extranjeras tienen una ventaja inicial.

CAUSAS DEL COMERCIO INTERNACIONAL

El comercio internacional obedece a dos causas: 1- Distribucin irregular de los recursos econmicos. 2- Diferencia de precios, la cual a su vez se debe a la posibilidad de producir bienes de acuerdo con las necesidades y gustos del consumidor.

Ventajas1- Cada pas se especializa en aquellos productos donde tienen una mayor eficiencia lo cual le permite utilizar mejor sus recursos productivos y elevar el nivel de vida de sus trabajadores. 2- Los precios tienden a ser ms estables. 3- Hace posible que un pas importe aquellos bienes cuya produccin interna no es suficiente y no sean producidos. 4- Hace posible la oferta de productos que exceden el consumo a otros pases, en otros mercados. ( Exportaciones) 5- Equilibrio entre la escasez y el exceso. 6- Los movimientos de entrada y salida de mercancas dan paso a la balanza en el mercado internacional. 7- Por medio de la balanza de pago se informa que tipos de transacciones internacionales han llevado a cabo los residentes de una nacin en un perodo dado

Induce a la perdida de la soberana nacional.

Provoca desplazamiento de trabajadores hacia pases (migraciones de pueblos con diversidad de culturas y por la desigualdad existente en el mundo.

Aumenta la dependencia del nivel de ingresos de otro pases.

Prdidas para los sectores que poseen recursos escasos en el pas y que son abundantes en otro.

Desventajas

Cundo acab la gran depresin? Cuando empez la Segunda Guerra MundialLa primera guerra mundial inici la desintegracin de la economa internacional.El colapso de la globalizacin ocurri con la gran depresin.

Las estrategias proteccionistas y nacionalistas reforzaron an ms la depresin econmica.

La Segunda Guerra Mundial fue consecuencia directa de la gran depresin.

3.5 Consecuencias para los pases que recibieron la inversinConsecuencias positivas:Contribuyeron a modernizar la economaFormacin de infraestructurasImportacin de tecnologa y bienes de equipo

Consecuencias negativas:Crean economas de enclaveExpolian recursos no renovablesApenas tienen efectos de arrastre sobre el conjunto de la economa

Las relaciones econmicas internacionales

1. La evolucin del comercio internacional: del librecambio al proteccionismo2. El sistema monetario internacional: el patrn oro3. La movilidad del capital: las inversiones internacionales4. La movilidad de la mano de obra: las grandes migraciones internacionales5. La expansin imperialista

*Chapter 6: The Political Economy of International Business

*Youve probably heard of free trade before, but do you know what it means? Free trade refers to a situation where a government doesnt attempt to restrict what its citizens can buy from another country or what they can sell to another country. Many nations today claim to support free trade. The U.S. is one, for example, but in reality, most countries are only nominally committed to free trade. They tend to intervene in international trade to protect the interests of politically important groups.

*Countries can intervene in markets in several ways. Governments can implement tariffs or subsidies, set imports quotas or voluntary export restraints, establish local content requirements or antidumping policies, or use administrative policies to make it more difficult for companies to engage in trade. Lets talk about each one. The oldest and simplest way for governments to intervene in the market is to impose tariffsand tariffs are the easiest type of trade barrier for the WTO to limit. In fact, weve seen the number of tariffs fall in recent years, while other types of trade barriers have become more common.A tariff is just a tax levied on imports that effectively raises the cost of imported products relative to domestic products. There are two kinds of tariffs. Specific tariffs are levied as a fixed charge for each unit of a good thats imported, and ad valorem tariffs are levied as a proportion of the value of the imported good. Why do governments implement tariffs? Well, tariffs are beneficial to governments because they increase revenues. Theyre also beneficial to domestic producers because tariffs provide protection against foreign competitors by increasing the cost of imported foreign goods. Of course, this means higher prices for consumers, though. In 2002 for example, the U.S. steel industry successfully lobbied Congress for protection from foreign imports. The U.S. put ad valorem tariffs of between 8 and 30 percent on all steel imports. As a result, the price of steel products in the U.S. rose 30 to 50 percent, hurting not only consumers, but also manufacturers of appliances, cars, and other steel products. These producers claimed that the tariffs made it difficult to compete in the global market. Questions were raised as to whether the benefits the tariffs brought to the steel producers were worth the costs to steel consumers. The tariffs were revoked in 2003 when the WTO ruled that they violated free trade agreements. In any case, there is general agreement that tariffs are unambiguously pro-producer, and anti-consumer. Tariffs also reduce the overall efficiency of the world economy because they encourage domestic producers to manufacture goods that could be produced more efficiently elsewhere.

*Subsidies are simply government payments to domestic producers. Governments can give subsidies in various ways including cash grants, low interest loans, and tax breaks. Subsidies can help domestic producers in two ways. They can help them compete against low cost foreign imports, and they can help them gain export markets. One of the biggest recipients of subsidies in most countries is agriculture. In the U.S for example, a 2002 bill designated that farmers were to receive $180 billion over 10 years. Do subsidies help producers be more competitive? Not really! Instead, they tend to protect inefficient producers and promote excess production. In fact, one study showed that if developed countries eliminated their agricultural subsidies, we would see an increase in global trade in agricultural products, and a savings of $160 billion! Keep in mind that consumers typically absorb the costs of subsidies. You can learn more about the effects of subsidies in agriculture in the Country Focus on wheat subsidies in Japan.Another way to intervene in markets is the import quota which is a direct restriction on the quantity of some good that may be imported into a country. In the U.S. for example, there is a quota on cheese imports. A tariff rate quota, which is common in agriculture, is a hybrid of a quota and a tariff where a lower tariff is applied to imports within the quota than to those over the quota. A quota rent is the extra profit that producers make when supply is artificially limited by an import quota. *Why then, if we know from trade theory that free trade is beneficial, do governments intervene in the market?Governments intervene for political reasons and for economic reasons.Political arguments are concerned with protecting the interests of certain groups within a nation, normally producers, usually at the expense of other groups like consumers, while economic arguments are typically concerned with boosting the overall wealth of a nation. Lets look at each of these more closely beginning with political arguments.

*The main political arguments for government intervention are protecting jobs, protecting industries deemed important for national security, retaliating to unfair foreign competition, protecting consumers from dangerous products, furthering foreign policy goals, and protecting the human rights of individuals in exporting countries.Lets look at each one.The most common political reason for trade restrictions is protecting jobs and industries. Usually, this is a result of political pressures by unions or industries that are threatened by more efficient foreign producers, and that have more political clout than the consumers who will eventually pay for the intervention.Recall for example, the tariffs that were placed on steel imports in 2002. Not only did these tariffs protect U.S. steel workers against more efficient foreign producers, they also helped to curry favor with politically important states President Bush needed to win for his bid for reelection in 2004! Protecting national security is another common argument for government intervention in the market. Governments claim that its sometimes necessary to protect certain industries in case of war. So, aerospace, or defense-related industries may receive some protection based on this need. In 1986 for example, the U.S. government subsidized Sematech, a major producer of semiconductors, using this argument.Sometimes governments intervene in markets to retaliate against moves made by other governments. China has been under fire in recent years for failing to take proper steps against product piracy, and many nations have threatened to implement trade barriers against Chinese products if the practice isnt stopped. China initially responded to the threats with threats of increasing its own barriers to trade, although it has since backed off.

*Now, lets look at the two main economic reasons for government intervention: the infant industry argument, and strategic trade policy.The infant industry argument which suggests that an industry should be protected until it can develop and be a viable and competitive industry internationally. One of the problems with this argument though is determining when an industry has grown up enough to stop the government support. In fact, many people believe that protecting these industries is really no different than sponsoring the development of inefficient industries.

*Strategic trade policy suggests that in cases where there may be important first mover advantages, governments can help firms achieve these advantages. So, U.S. support of Boeing in the 1950s and 60s probably helped the company become one of the firms to survive in the industry.Governments can also intervene in the markets to help domestic firms overcome barriers to entry in industries where foreign firms have an advantage. This is how Boeings chief competitor managed to gain its position in the commercial jet industry. In 1966, the company had less than 5 percent of the global market, but by 2007, thanks to government subsidies, Airbus had increased its market share to 45 percent!