EGA-Espacios Publicos Arq Silenciosos

8/22/2019 EGA-Espacios Publicos Arq Silenciosos

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ESTOCOLMO

52 ESPACIOS PBLICOS, ARQUITECTOS SILENCIOSOS:EN TORNO A LA EXPOSICIN DE ESTOCOLMO, 1930Antonio Milln-Gmez

1/ D. WHEELER: Art since mid-century, Thames &Hudson,1991, pgs. 262-269.J. MADERUELO: La construccin del paisaje contemporneo.CDANHuesca 2008, pgs. 14-19, y 25-27.2/ JOHN CAGE: Silence. Wesleyan University Press, Connecticut.1961. En la pg. 93 vemos un intercambio entre Schoenberg yCage: el maestro pidi a Cage soluciones a un problema: Hicecomo me dijo. De nuevo pregunt, Otra. Y as varias veces. Alfin dije No hay ms soluciones. El pregunt: Cul es el princi-

pio que subyace a todas las soluciones?

3/ HEIDEGGER, MARTIN: Moira(Parmnide, VIII, 34-41). Essaiset conferences. Ed. Gallimard. Original publicado en Pfullingen,1954. La interpretacin de qu pueda ser percepcin en Leibniz,Kant y la acepcin moderna permite entender el sentido de lafrase que encabeza este artculo. La distincin entre eony einaisera prxima a la que realiza B. Fuller para el trmino forma, concarcter verbal o sustantivo.4/ PORPHYRIOS, DEMETRI: Caras reversibles: Arquitecturadanesa y sueca 1905-1930. En AAVV.: Erik Gunnar Asplund.

Edicin al cuidado de Jos Manuel Lpez-Pelez. Ed. Stylos,Barcelona, 1990, pg.46.

5/ En ALISON + PETER SMITHSON: Prlogo a Colin St. JohnWilson: The Dilemma of Classicism. Arch. Association, 1988. Laserie de arquitectos silenciosos fue apuntada por Alison SmithsonPrimera entrega de la identidad de los arquitectos silenciososdel Movimiento Moderno: En la Primera Generacin: SigurdLewerentz, Suecia; Dimitri Pikionis, Grecia; Konstantin Melnikov,Rusia. En la Segunda Generacin: Charles y Ray Eames,California; Jos Antonio Coderch, Espaa; Max Bill, Suiza/Alemania. En la Tercera Generacin: Ralph Erskine, S uecia.

La claridad expositiva de la arqui-tectura moderna nrdica remite aasuntos que trascienden las apa-riencias: as, el dilogo de arqui-tectura verncula y clasicismo, la

emergencia de un medio humanizadoy los modos del espacio pblico. Re-correr hoy caminos ya transitados evo-ca sensaciones comprensibles desde elLand Art: su rectitud inapelable acer-ca a propuestas de Richard Long o J.Cage, pues la experiencia de esos es-pacios es inseparable de una vivenciadel tiempo 1, mudable porque la inde-terminacin, el vaco o el azar permi-ten descubrir paisajes imaginarios 2.Los adalides de la Modernidad gatea-ron por los parques de Drottningholmy Haga, y en sus primeras obras ha-llamos trazados semejantes a los de ar-quitectos del Barroco Sueco, Tessin,Piper y Adelcrantz. La diferencia en-

tre accin de construir y objeto cons-truido, o la fusin de espiritualidad yempata con la naturaleza, remiten aun tema moderno: la diferencia entreser y percepcin 3.

Algunas preguntas se plantean en elcontraste con anteriores tradiciones.Puede entenderse un supuesto dori-cismo por la austeridad ante la situa-cin econmica y valores ticos queacercaban a grupos sociales, reconfi-gurando el acto de construir sosteni-do por una lgica y una mitologaarraigada en la tierra. Silenciosamen-te, se fue formando un compromisoentre la construccin sencilla y vern-cula y la estereometra clasicista. Su-brayamos el adverbio silenciosamen-te, pues una construccin en que sereconociera la naturaleza y la culturasuper los modos habituales 4. Ciertasfuentes mediterrneas se transfigura-

ron en su nuevo destino en un sincre-tismo donde los espacios colectivos, detodos y de nadie, permitieron actitu-des y medios antes inexistentes: Noes que los arquitectos silenciosos nodigan nada, ms bien es lo que hacen;sin embargo, son inconscientes de ha-cerlo, por la complejidad de la inven-cinQuizs slo cuando una obrase encuentra con naturalidad con otraobra cuyo origen es distinto, cuya in-tencin es distinta, un impulso singu-lar se transforma en una ola observa-ble, y cambia nuestra visin delpresente 5. Como si una ciudad se ha-llase mejor servida por lugares espec-ficos que desvelan la actividad y cmoafectan a nuestro sentido identitario:en el siglo XIX los parques pblicoshubieron de aceptar el uso masivo detodas las clases (idea tan inusual queOlmsted seal la buena conducta de

Alaamablemem

oriadedoaAnaGimnezdeCoderch

In Industry, Form is a Verb. In Art, Form is a noun. Buckminster Fuller


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la clase trabajadora en el Parque Bir-kenhead Paxton). La idea llevada porOlmsted a Nueva Inglaterra volvi aEscandinavia, donde las cualidades in-evitables del paisaje como era halladocondujeron a otra idea en los aostreinta: qu puede sobrevivir, qupuede costear la sociedad de masas?El paisaje que puede sobrevivir era el

que crece pese al vehculo que circula,y soporta los destrozos del verano, in-vierno y viento en la ciudad abierta,pareciendo presentable con mnimoscuidados. Modalidad que no puede ha-cerse extensiva 6.

Es paradjico que Lewerentz, di-seador con Asplund del paisaje delSkogskirkogrden de Enskede al Surde Estocolmo, lo sea tambin de la se-altica y de algunos vehculos paraGeneral Motors en la Exposicin de1930? Entre los aos veinte y treintadel pasado siglo la presencia de las m-quinas se hizo habitual, y arquitectosque aportaron las imgenes de la ve-locidad, dieron forma al paisaje mo-derno: posesin de territorio y movi-miento mecanizado cambiaron laexperiencia de los arquitectos: los dela primera generacin viajaron en avio-netas con ventanas practicables (Gro-pius, Le Corbusier), los de la segun-da construyeron para aerdromos(Prouv, Jacobsen), y en la tercera ve-ran el territorio desde ventanas fijas.

Una dcada de exposiciones

y adis al clasicismoA los viajes al Mediterrneo siguie-

ron exposiciones, cuya secuencia y vn-culos con modelos y movimientos ar-tsticos han sido expuestos con rigor7: desde la Exposicin Bltica de Mal-

6/ SMITHSON, A+P: Territory. Italian Thoughts, edicin al cuida-do de B. Egdman.7/ MIKKOLA, KIRMO: The transition from classicism to functiona-lism in Scandinavia. Second International Alvar Aalto Symposium.Jyvskyl, 1982.RUDBERG, EVA: Stockholmsutstllningen 1930. Modernismens ge-nombrott i svensk arkitektur. Stockholmia Frlag, 1999, pgs 19-23.ERIKSSON, EVA: Den Moderna staten tar form. Ordfront frlag AB,2001.

8/ GARCA MONTALVO, PEDRO (Las Villas de Roma. Coleccinde Arquitectura. Murcia 1984) dice en el Prefacio, pg. 22, slo hay una que sea visitada en la actualidad como tal, por susmritos de conjuntoy no por algn aspecto aislado. Se trata de laVilla dEste, en TivoliDiseo integrado percibido porLewerentz.

m (1914) hasta la Exposicin del Ho-gar en la Galera Liljevach de Estocol-mo (1917) pareca haber una reduccintemtica, pero la exposicin de Go-temburgo (1923) fue una muestra ex-tensiva del Clasicismo Sueco desde lasartes y oficios hasta la construccin ur-bana. Dos aos despus la exposicinde Artes y Oficios de Pars apreciara

la elegancia sueca y desde el Pabe-lln de lEsprit Nouveau se disemina-ron ideas de Le Corbusier por Escan-dinavia. El pabelln sueco era clasicista,de Bergsten, y no el de Asplund cuyosentido depromenade era ms moder-no. La exposicin de vivienda Byggeoch Bo en Liding (1925) introdujocriterios funcionales para la viviendaestandarizada, pero an con ademanesneoclsicos. Hasta que con la Weis-senhofsiedlung de Stuttgart en 1927 semarcase tendencia y se marginasen va-lores alemanes: baste contrastar la ideaorgnica de Hring y la racionalidadcontundente del bloque de Mies; no ca-be, entonces, obviar las fuentes (T. Fis-cher) que nutren a Hring y Lewerentzen cuanto aqu nos atae. Poco des-pus, la iniciativa de Bryggman y Aal-to en Turku (1929) desvela los inter-cambios en la zona, hasta la exposicinde Estocolmo (1930), no superada co-mo muestra de arquitectura.

El encuentro en Malm 1914 de losjvenes Asplund y Lewerentz, dondeste muestra el diseo para la capilla-crematorio de Helsingborg (figs. 1A,1B), propici una colaboracin pos-terior. En ambas obras es difcil sepa-rar arquitectura y ritual, o ignorar elvnculo italiano (Villa dEste) 8: su sen-tido unitario (acceso contrapuesto aljardn; la capilla, al patio de las urnas;la iglesia cubierta a dos aguas, al patio

1A

1B

1C

1A. Capilla de Helsinborg.

1B. Conjunto de Helsingborg.

1C. Cementerio. Malm.


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o Kungstgarden y as se aprecia en losgrabados de Erik Dahlberg en Sueciaantiqua et hodierna, 1692. El cambiode ideario se ve en su formulacin gr-fica: ya en el proyecto para el teatro deMalm (1924-27) dibujos equiparablesa la coleccin de Schinkel (SammlungArchitektonischer Entwerfe) darn pa-so en el segundo concurso de 1935 con

E. Lallerstedt y D. Helldn que inclu-so hoy nos sorprende.El contraste sigue en las propuestas

para las capillas y crematorio de Mal-m: ste evoluciona entre 1924 y 1930,superando los principios de Durand,hasta el progreso de 1930-36 que nosdeja perplejos por su validez como ar-quitectura contempornea, que nadaextraara bajo la firma de un profe-sional, hoy. Asimismo, la capilla prin-cipal de 1924 cambia desde un mode-lo basado en el Erecteion con una

macla de espacios y orientacin ge-nrica, preludio de la arquitectura dela capilla de la Resurreccin, con trn-sitos tan vvidos como las experienciasde R. Long. La escalinata que sube ala Colina de la Meditacin es un re-crearse en las cualidades de una esca-lera: sus contrahuellas disminuyen enla secuencia de tramos (9, 12, 12, 12,12, 12, 10), hasta el acceso final a lameseta que permite la visin del con-junto, descanso horizontal e imagenglobal, para bajar lentamente por ellargo y recto camino ataluzado, de lossiete pozos, y proceder al recorrido ha-cia el prtico. Desde aqu el control demovimientos sigue un hondo ritual:entrada desde norte, movimiento ha-cia el baldaquino siguiendo de Ponientea Levante y viceversa, bajo luz en pe-numbra que entra por la ventana Sur,en un muro donde se diferencia de los

abierto) revela la posicin de Lewerentzrespecto al Werkbund y la AsociacinSueca para las Artes y Oficios a tra-vs de T. Fischer: El reconocimientode los valores artsticos est ligado n-timamente a la aspiracin cultural co-mn de nuestro tiempo: el esfuerzo ha-cia la armona social, el orden y laconducta unificada del trabajo y la vi-

da. Gracias a su experiencia alemanaLewerentz encontr las ideas refor-mistas del Bund fr Heimatschutzque buscaba preservar una sentido decontinuidad uniendo funcionalidad eindustrializacin 9, unos quince aosantes de que estos temas fueran deba-tidos abiertamente en Suecia.

En su propuesta para el cementeriode Enskede (1915) los elementos men-cionados seguan latentes. El lema (Ta-llum) alude a la villa Tallom de I.L.Wahlman, a una arquitectura ro-mntica con convicciones vernculasdesde la que aspirar a una racionalidad10. La serie de propuestas permite se-guir la figuracin del paisaje, ya quedesde el trazado de A.E. Phlman(1910) hasta la ms prxima a la cons-truida (1932) se sucedieron mltiplessoluciones: en la maqueta de concurso(1915, figs. 2A, 2B) el acceso a la ca-pilla principal discurre por la lnea demnima pendiente de la topografa, yrboles a sendos lados ocultan el des-tino final; ello motiva una espera quehubiera aadido expectacin. Pero elcarcter de paisaje y capillas se altermientras los autores maduraban su ar-quitectura, veinticinco aos: S. Lewe-rentz muestra pronto esa mudanza enel cementerio de Malm, cuyos parte-rres de tumbas en la planta general(1918-19, fig. 1C), pueden comparar-se con parques previos Drottningholm

9/ CONSTANT, CAROLINE: The Woodland Cemetery: Toward aSpiritual Landscape. Erik Gunnar Asplund and Sigurd Lewerentz.1915-1961. Byggfrlaget, Stockholm 1994. Pg. 22.10/ Vase tambin la Villa Ainola, de Lars Sonck para JeanSibelius.

54

2A

2B

2C

2A. Enskede 1916, 1915, topografa.

2B. Maqueta de Tallum.

2C. Imagen acceso 1932.


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sutiles contrafuertes adjuntos, y, porfin, salida a un nivel ms bajo que laentrada (final de tiempo, ascensin ri-tual y descanso definitivo).

Tambin en 1924 Lewerentz pro-pona un mbito semicircular comoentrada principal al Skogskirkogrdende Enskede, para acoger a los visitan-tes procedentes del transporte pblicoy privado, ms un pabelln de entra-da con cabina de telfonos y quioscode flores, a los que se sumaba una alu-sin a los propileos que sobrecarga-ba el acceso. La autoridad de los Ce-menterios de Estocolmo opt porconsultar a Currman, Wahlman y s-tberg, que eliminan edificios y clarifi-can un acceso limpio 11, enfatizando

el zcalo con una fuente a la izquier-da del acceso y la plantacin de r-boles sobre ellos. El ncleo del traba-jo en esta zona ser entonces lasecuencia de imgenes a descubrir des-de este trnsito, con un elemento ver-tical que ir cambiando de forma conla evolucin de la propuesta (obelisco,

grupo escultrico, y la cruz retomadade C. Friedrich, fig. 2C).

La orientacin (Norte- Sur) provo-ca un impacto perceptivo inolvidableal situarnos ante un cielo a contraluz:una concavidad de csped barrido porlos vientos, bajo nubes iluminadas porel sol rasante, que articula las secuen-cias laterales en que se bifurca el ca-mino de entrada: a un lado, el caminode la Cruz hasta las capillas y el cre-matorio de Asplund, y junto a l uncolumbario sobre la gravera descarta-da como terreno de construccin; y alotro, un camino lineal que sobrepasadiversos accidentes topogrficos. Lacorrelacin entre ambas secuencias me-rece atencin, por su parentesco con

ejemplos anteriores y por constituir laidea seminal de la Exposicin de 1930.

Una bifurcacin similar, diseadaa mediados del siglo XVII a menor es-cala por C. F. Adelcrantz y C. J.Cronstedt, se conserva en el Natio-nalmuseum y comunica la actual Co-lina de Flora, el Pabelln Chino y sen-

dos lados en Drottningholm 12 (fig.3A). Adelcrantz dispuso que se plan-tasen avenidas de castaos en tornoal pabelln, con vistas hacia el paisa-je circundante: informales y privadasal este del pabelln chino, con avia-rios y construcciones varias. De la me-nagerie tras los bosquecillos slo per-dura un estanque y la floresta agreste.Aunque sea raro hallar comentariosal respecto, las construcciones en-frentadas al pabelln son ms que cu-riosas: sus bases se ven desde el acce-so como taludes para salvar eldesnivel y con apariencia de cons-trucciones rsticas: una mirada traslos muros descubre construccionescon bveda de crucera de ladrillo so-

bre durmientes de mampostera. Enel pabelln de Poniente, la dualidadentre parte baja y alta, con funcionesrespectivas de espacio sirviente y ser-vido, son la de un oficio para la co-cina y una sala donde la familia realpuede hablar en confidence, sinotra conexin que un elevador mec-

11/ Caroline Constant: op. cit. pgs. 80-82. Relaciones conDrottningholm y Piper indicadas en pg. 83.12/ NOLIN, CATHARINA: Drottningholms slottspark. StatensFastighetsverk, Stockholm, 2000, pgs. 23-27.

3B3A 3C

3A. Adelcrantz.

3B. Jardn Ingles. Piper.

3C. Colina Drottningholm.


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y como editor de Byggmstaren (1929-32), urbanista y arquitecto, desarro-llara su talento: las palabras anterio-res eran coetneas de la colaboracinen el edificio de los estudiantes de KTH(1928-1930) con S. Markelius, quienestablecera un inters por la Bauhausde Dessau, relaciones estrechas conGropius y un compromiso con los

CIAM. Su visita al Weissenhof, comoAsplund y Paulsson, explica el marcoprevio a la Exposicin de Estocolmo1930: promovida por la AsociacinSueca para los Oficios, sta fue reor-ganizada en 1915 para elaborar pro-ductos mediante la mquina, motivoque haba dividido el Deutsche Werk-bund un ao antes.

La Exposicin del Hogar en la Ga-lera Liljevach, la de Paris (1925) y laurgencia ante la organizacin de la Ex-posicin Weissenhof en Stuttgart mo-tivaron una muestra mayor. El comitde trabajo (Paulsson, Asplund y H. La-gerstrm), apoyado por el Estado, laCiudad y varios benefactores, propu-so en pocos das la organizacin aPaulsson y Asplund, centrada en tresapartados de productos suecos para elhogar, la casa, y la Calle. Con la ubi-cacin y programa listos en junio de1928 se encarga a Asplund un diseono conservado. Los edificios, efmeros,se pensaron como bvedas con arcosde madera laminada con los extremosabiertos, semejantes al pabelln de It-talla para la Exposicin de Turku1929. Esta versin se presenta y se re-chaza en agosto de 1928: Paulsson yAsplund viajan entonces para ver otrasexposiciones, personas y lugares (Brno,Stuttgart, Pars), y a fin de ao otrapropuesta est lista en plano y ma-queta, bien acogida por el comit.

nico para servir bebidas o alimentos.Es la coexistencia de arquitecturarstica y clsica un correlato de laconvivencia de estamentos sociales?

La articulacin mediante ejes es evi-dente al final del Jardn Barroco, don-de una masa de rboles en torno a unclaro en el bosque (Boskn Stjrnan)orienta los pasos a una colina similar

a la colina de la Meditacin en Ens-kede (fig.3C). Gustav III encargaraen 1780 un parque ideal a la ingle-sa, al norte del Jardn Barroco a Fre-drik Magnus Piper. El proyecto con-servado en la Kungl. Akademien frde frie Konsterna muestra una red detrazados, operacin habitual en ade-lante: la regulacin del conjunto sehar desde focos puntuales, estructu-rados, y no desde la geometra in-trnseca de las plantaciones. Estan-ques, canales, islas, amplios prados yrboles frondosos establecen un mar-co de relacin con los edificios (fig.3C). Los puntos clave se adornaroncon estatuas de mrmol, copias de lascomparadas por Gustav III en su via-je a Italia en 1783-84. Aqu, como enHaga 13 un pabelln que imita unatienda turca, permite entender el pa-belln de servicios en Enskede.

Un nuevo dilogo entre patrimonioy espacio publico se estableci desdelos concursos para espacios pblicos,emblemtico en la ampliacin delAyuntamiento de Gotemburgo, se-guido con cuidado magistral por J.M.Lpez-Pelez 14, quien nos descubrepaso a paso el proceso de diseo jun-to a los cambios de percepcin delconjunto formado con los edificios ad-yacentes, las diferencias de escala enla plaza Gustavo Adolfo y las opcio-nes de acceso, transformando lo que

13/ CAROLINE CONSTANT:op.cit. pg.72-79./ C. NOLIN: op. cit,pgs 30-37.14/ LPEZ-PELEZ, JOS MANUEL: La arquitectura de GunnarAsplund. Arquthesis. 2002. Vanse pgs 74-90.

56 era en el inicio una ampliacin del edi-ficio, en un dilogo entre estructurainterior e integracin urbana, que pro-ducir en 1924 un proyecto para laOrdenacin de la plaza 15. Mientrasla arquitectura centroeuropea de esosaos se realizaba ex-novo sin reparos,en la arquitectura nrdica se exiganrevisiones constructivas, arquitect-

nicas y de visin del lugar. En algunoscasos se ha visto un paralelo, aunqueel programa y finalidad fuesen dispa-res: como el desarrollo lineal del ce-menterio de Enskede y la Exposicinde Estocolmo.

Hacia la Exposicin de

Estocolmo 1930La inauguracin de la Biblioteca de

la Ciudad de Estocolmo en 1928 re-vela el clima de la arquitectura sueca.

La sencilla perspectiva de la portadade Byggmstaren y los escuetos co-mentarios funcionales de Asplund in-dican un cambio, atizados por Unohren (1897-1977) con dureza y lu-cidez (La Biblioteca de la ciudad meparece una tragedia en la competen-cia no resuelta entre diferentes vi-siones de forma. Se halla en el lmiteentre dos pocas de la arquitecturasueca profundamente distintas en susmentalidades). Le eran ajenos su de-coracin y monumentalidad, obvian-do el entorno inmediato: a pocos me-tros la cpula de la iglesia GustavVasa, acabada veintids aos antes, de-ja ver porqu no era viable otra cpu-la sobre la gran sala de prstamo; esdecir, porqu Asplund vio inviable suprimer proyecto. hren ya mostr suinters por el Pabelln de lEsprit Nou-veau de la Exposicin de Paris en 1925

15/ J.M. LPEZ-PELEZ: op. cit. Pg 91. La claridad exterior ti enesu correlato en la propuesta interior, con una idea espacial des-arrollada por Aalto en el Rautatalo de Helsinki, en 1952.

16/ Las descripciones pueden hallarse en E. RUDBERG (1999);J.M. LPEZ-PELEZ, H. FERNNDEZ ELORZA; E. RUDBERG:Asplund: Exposicin Universal de Estocolmo. 1930. Ministeriode la Vivienda. Ed. Rueda, 2004/ PETER BLUNDELL JONES:Gunnar Asplund. Phaidon.2006/ as como la web del Stads arkiv.La informacin para este trabajo ha sido consultada en losArchivos donde se conservan las fuentes originales y en catlo-gos de anticuario, como B. SYDHOFF(Frord): 1930/80.Arkitektur/ Form/ Konst. Kulturhuset. 1980.


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Lugar e implantacin de la

Exposicin de Estocolmo 1930Orientado al sur y la laguna, el lu-

gar se elevaba hacia la colina de Djur-grden al este, cercano y visible desdeel centro de la ciudad burguesa. A l seacceda mediante parada y giro para

tranvas y autobuses cerca de la ribera,y un muelle. Asplund esboz una or-ganizacin lineal en forma de calle(Corso, fig 4C) para aprovechar las po-sibilidades del agua en la ribera nor-te, ubicando una pasarela peatonaldonde la laguna se estrecha, hacia elparque de atracciones en la riberaopuesta. Tras la parada de transportese acceda a un prtico abierto a la ori-lla de la laguna, y desde l un grupo depabellones discurra paralelo a la Ca-lle y la laguna, el trnsito se bifurca-ba y la calle deba girar, articulndoserespecto a un planetario hemisfrico,cuyo eje conduca una callecita entrequioscos, exposiciones, y rboles exis-tentes hasta el restaurante junto al agua.

El Corso segua en paralelo hasta laorilla ms distante, ampliando el lmi-te con un camino recto de madera. Al

norte varios pabellones con patios in-termedios, con acceso a otros menoresen su parte trasera daban sensacin deprofundidad urbana; y el espacio entreel Corso y la laguna se convirti en Pla-za del Festival, limitada por el Restau-rante Paradise a Levante, el edificio msllamativo y libre respecto al Corso y losedificios militares traseros (fig. 4B). Ungran mstil anunciador, con una cabinade prensa suspendida, era el hito prin-cipal de la exposicin para el mundo ex-terior, aadendo plasticidad al espa-cio pblico. Cruzada la Plaza delFestival, el trayecto segua a levante jun-to a la ribera con otra lnea de pabello-nes, incluyendo el apreciado Svea Viken,dedicado a la historia e identidad sue-ca; una masa de rboles existentes cam-biaba el carcter de ribera y el rea ex-positiva poda ampliarse de nuevo, conuna feria de atracciones al norte, y otroparque de atracciones hacia el sur, cru-zado el nuevo puente peatonal. Seguanunos prototipos de viviendas y aparta-mentos realizados por los modernistassuecos, mera coleccin de objetos, sindesarrollar el tejido urbano, hecho cri-ticado por A. Aalto, entre otros.

La descripcin anterior es una lec-tura de la planta 16 (fig. 4A). La seccinno era menos importante, tanto en lospabellones de dos y tres pisos, como enel tratamiento de planta baja, espe-cialmente en el restaurante Paradise.

El principio del Corso a la entradaestaba construido mediante unos esca-lones sobre el borde del agua para acer-carlo a ella, mientras los pabellones sedisponan en el lado opuesto sobre unzcalo. La mayora de los esbozos deAsplund para las plantas bajas sonconstrucciones en hilera, con varias pla-taformas destacadas respecto a la to-pografa natural. Haba rboles creci-dos entre el planetario y el borde de lalaguna, usados para un jardn que ocul-taba la Plaza del Festival desde la en-trada y protega el restaurante del Par-que; todo hubiera sido ms difcil sineste jardn y otro masa arbolada msdistante, que propiciaron la jardinera,incluso soterrando unas tuberas paracalentar plantas y bulbos, dispuestasantes de la inauguracin.

Algunos pabellones, como el detransporte, eran llamativos: los pr-ticos de acero de la sala trasera te-

4A

4B4C

4A. Exp. Estocolmo, 1930.

4B. Imagen Oficial de la Expo 1930.

4C. Acceso y Corso.


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de Gotemburgo, alojara la orquestade la exposicin, varias bandas, pia-nos, coros de miles de voces. Hubo tea-tro, proyeccin de pelculas, espect-culos de ballet y gimnasia, y fuegosartificiales, reflejados en las aguas y vi-sibles en gran parte de la ciudad. Ascomo natacin y el remo para compe-ticin o deleite en la laguna (fig. 6B).

El final en esquina del Corso lo pre-sida el restaurante Paradise. La ofici-na de prensa de Svenska Dagbladetapa-reca antes de girar a la izquierda frenteal edificio del servicio pblico con unafachada de dos pisos, curvada y de cris-tal. Se preparaba as el camino hacia elRestaurante con espacio para mil per-sonas en el comedor principal y cua-trocientas en cada una de las salas me-nores de banquetes, servidas por cocinasen la parte trasera, alineadas en tres ni-veles. Era el trasfondo arquitectnico

dores y terrazas para 50.000 personas.Limitada a Norte por el Corso, a Surpor la laguna, la plaza estaba indicadapor un mstil de 74 metros con una ca-bina de prensa colgante, sobre la queluca el smbolo de la exposicin y se-ales iluminadas. El grafismo, logoti-pos y carteles eran de S. Lewerentz trasconcurso previo. El aire festivo con susbanderolas y adornos fue objeto deanlisis previo para sealar los perfilesdurante la noche por efectos de luz, ga-rantizada por varios generadores: la luzde fluorescentes reflejada sobre los pi-lares del pabelln de entrada era visi-ble desde la ciudad, confirindole le-vedad e inmaterialidad (fig. 5A). Lasfotografas de la poca muestran losperfiles de los pabellones, mstiles y re-flejos sobre el fondo oscuro. Un re-flector acstico para orquestina, pun-to de partida para la Sala de Conciertos

nan una seccin inusual, curvada,que desde la parte trasera se proyec-taba sobre la cubierta (fig. 5B). Y elfrente se articul mediante adiciones.Un planetario con una cpula se-miesfrica para 700 personas e inte-rior oscuro para proyecciones desdeuna mquina Zeiss, (otra referenciams al cielo estrellado, fig. 5C) orien-taba hacia las pequeas construccio-nes que conducan a la laguna y elrestaurante del Parque, o al siguien-te tramo del Corso donde varios pa-bellones mostraban productos in-dustriales. Se abran a patios lateralescon prticos ms modestos, susci-tando curiosidad, y evitando la rei-teracin mediante el contraste conlos flancos y el juego de niveles.

La Plaza del Festival con sus dos res-taurantes era el espacio exterior quecaracterizaba la Exposicin, con vela-

58

5B

5B

5C

5A. Pabelln de entrada.

5B. Exposicin1930. Acceso.

5C. Hemisferio.


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de la Plaza del Festival, cuyos volme-nes articulados indicaban que la expo-sicin segua tras la esquina. Su infle-xin diriga vistas a la laguna y abra laesquina; las terrazas frente a l girabanan ms, evidenciando el giro en el re-corrido. Dentro del edificio, al enra-sar las cocinas con el comedor princi-pal, la sala de baile era la esquina deledificio, una sala cuadrada, centro deatencin del complejo. As permanecehoy, por motivos arquitectnicos: aquse desvanece la caja racionalista, deri-vando a un contenedor transparente ycurvado de un espacio vaco articuladoen diferentes niveles de varios modos;ms an, advierte de la continuidad deflujos y actividades entre ambos ladosdel edificio, y puesto que este elementoindicaba de tal modo la Exposicin,se remita el mensaje a la Plaza del Fes-tival y al dominio urbano ms distan-

te, adquiriendo una escala diferente yuna dimensin territorial.El hito ms fotografiado era este tam-

bor semicircular (fig. 7A), distinto delas composiciones simtricas clsicas.Giraba hasta encontrarse con otra fa-chada de cristal, frente a la laguna y elsol. Un balcn circular en el primer pi-so obligaba a retrasar el tambor supe-rior con un radio menor, y Asplund pro-yect media cruja acristalada a dostercios del inicio de la sala de baile, ar-ticulacin que produce una esquina ilu-soria. La fachada consegua una sensa-cin de cambio de escala, sealandola importancia de la sala de baile en laesquina y corazn de la exposicin. Laseccin muestra que la planta baja es-taba retrasada, con espacio entre co-lumnas que operaba como calle co-mercial hacia la Plaza del Festival, yse poda transitar entre los veladores

bajo la esquina, legible como espacioabstracto entre pilotis. En el paseo en-tre columnas se hallaban tiendas cuyaforma se adaptaba al entorno hasta re-tirarse dos metros en la entrada princi-pal al restaurante, all los aseos y guar-darropa conducan a dos escaleras: aizquierda hasta el restaurante principal,a la derecha para la sala de baile. Los

rellanos estn situados estratgicamen-te para conducir a niveles altos y sloen la sala de baile el movimiento es lon-gitudinal y transversal, articulacin delconjunto. Asplund haba mostradoque poda transferir su sentido depro-menade arquitectnica desde la se-cuencia axial recta de la biblioteca ne-oclsica a los mtodos asimtricos yangulados del modernismo 17, se-cuencia que aparecer en la obra de Aal-to y Scharoun, pero ninguno de ellos lohaba logrado en 1930 (fig. 7B).

El edificio se construy con estructu-ra metlica y tres intercolumnios de cua-tro metros en ambas direcciones, medi-das que permitan flexibilidad, utilizandodos luces de seis metros o tres de cua-tro. En el restaurante principal y la sa-la de baile terrazas superiores servidaspor un piso alto de cocinas para apro-vechar el volumen y vistas, dejando vis-tas a los huspedes y aumentando el ca-rcter festivo, aadido al efecto de granespacio exterior (fig. 7C). Por la nochelos comensales podan ver sus mesas ilu-minadas por grandes lmparas, globosjaponeses de papel. El edificio poda ver-se tratado como un estadio rodeado depabellones abiertos frontalmente al es-pacio de la exposicin y cerrndose tan-to como fuese posible a la parte trasera.

El Restaurante del Parque mostrabala faceta ms amable, ldica, ya des-de su localizacin: en el lado de Po-

6A

6B6A. Plaza del Festival.

6B. El frente de la laguna por la noche.

17/ P. BLUNDELL- JONES: op.cit., pg 134.


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niente de la Plaza, hacia la ciudad, aca-bando el eje iniciado en el planetario,y protegido por rboles que aportabanintimidad y encaje en el lugar. En su la-do sur, las mesas podan llegar hastaun muelle en la ribera. Una cocina cen-tral servia tres comedores en el per-metro de la primera planta y la plan-ta baja tena una distribucin similar,

con clientes al aire libre protegidos porel edificio. La planta nos muestra undiseo apresurado, condicionado porsu diversidad y la necesidad de signifi-car la esquina, girando el ala traserapara abrirse al parque de atrs (figs.7D, 7E). Sus cuatro cafs (Ellida, Bl-jeblick, Puck y Lilla Paris) indican labsqueda de diversidad en un espacioreducido. La terraza abierta al SO (Elli-da) tena forma de barco, mientras lasala hacia el Norte (Puck) tena una b-veda acristalada, donde O.G. Carlsundrecogi una coleccin de arte concre-to, muy debatida. La mejor orientacin,de Sur hacia la laguna, estaba ocupa-da por el caf Bljeblick (vista de lasolas), con una seccin discutible, don-de se aprecia el compromiso por com-patibilizar vistas, diversidad y alegra.

Trascendencia de la Exposi-

cin y debate posteriorAbierta entre el 16 de mayo y fin de

setiembre la exposicin aprovech elbuen clima estacional y fue todo un xi-to en visitas e intercambios comercia-les 18, tambin en intensidad de deba-te iniciado con el manifiesto Acceptera!(Acceptad!). El clasicismo no interesa-ba, ni cualquier otro arquitecto de po-ca. De ah el radicalismo de los autores.(la Historia no poda proporcionar lec-cin alguna 19) y su operacin ideol-

18/ El informe final de resultados (REDOGRELSE FR STOC-KHOLMS- UTSTLLNINGEN 1930/ Arkitektur Museet Arkiv)incluye una comparacin: el nmero de visitantes fue 3.895.682(29.512 diarios) y en coronas suecas los intercambios ascendierona 2.334.087;75 Kr., que comparan muy positivamente respecto alas exposiciones de 1897 (1.253.571 vi sitantes y 1.059.514;50 Kr.)y de 1909 (691.224 visitantes y 550.546;5 Kr).19/ EVA ERIKSSON: op. cit., pg. 465

60

7 A,B,C. Restaurante Paradise.

7 D,E. Restaurante del Parque.

7A 7E

7B

7D

7C


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gica decisiva: una continuidad autnti-ca excede la pluralidad de estilos. Y si-gui el debate: la arquitectura del fun-cionalismo para estos arquitectosapareca como respuesta a una seriede problemas de la arquitectura y la so-ciedad, preparada durante largo tiem-po 20. Pero, el mismo ao del mani-fiesto se argumentaba que las races del

funcionalismo sueco podan hallarse enla construccin verncula 21.El recurso a la crtica alej del cen-

tro de debate. Zevi apunt direccionesnuevas. Ampliar, enriquecer el dic-cionario figurativo de la arquitecturamoderna desvinculndolo del cubismoy especialmente de la corriente puris-ta. Inventar nuevos organismos, libe-rarse de la regla T, estimular la fanta-sa hacia creaciones ms elsticas y msvivas, esta fue la tentativa de la revo-lucin de 1930 22. El restaurante Pa-

radise como objeto construido23

pue-de explicarse por la conexin conMendelsohn, la asimetra en las dis-tribuciones, no el conjunto ni razonesde los colaboradores. En esta cone-xin puede fundarse una disolucinde la caja racionalista, pasando a untratamiento ms orgnico y fluido delas relaciones entre espacio interior yexterior, entre construccin y contextourbano. El uso de formas dinmicasen tal contexto o la iluminacin elc-trica para animar las fachadas erantambin naturales en Lewerentz, tu-vo su propia empresa a tal efecto. Elsentido orgnico es evidente, y esca-sos edificios (el mstil anunciador oel espacio para la orquesta) puedenentenderse como objetos separados;de hecho, el rasgo ms recordado dela Exposicin fue la actividad y ale-gra compartida.

Mstiles y reclamos grficos presen-tes en el Pabelln Mosse del mismo Men-delsohn y el de Hans Schumacher parala Exposicin Pressa en Colonia (1928)ofrecen semejanzas con los quioscos deperidicos y el edificio restorn de ErikBryggmann en Turku (1929), y pudie-ron sugerir a K. Frampton la conexinconstructivista: Se trataba, pura y sim-

plemente, de populismo funcional, unpunto intermedio entre el Heitmatstil delTercer Reich y el realismo socialista delEstalinismo 24. Trminos que debieranmatizarse: Asplund y Aalto podan co-nocer las obras rusas, pero la voluntadde celebracin festiva era ms poderosacomo elemento generador; de hecho,Aalto critic la ausencia de conexin en-tre prototipos de vivienda y el espaciopblico resultante en la seccin de vi-vienda, ms bien pobre. Tampoco es per-tinente el supuesto bolchevismo de am-

bos, y G. Schildt relata el puetazo deAalto a Bertel Jung al llamarles precisa-mente as. En realidad, algunos rasgosde la nueva arquitectura, como las cu-biertas planas, eran tratados por los na-zis con ese adjetivo, mientras que BertelJung prefera tipos clsicos para los edi-ficios bancarios que diseaba. El inter-nacionalismo de Asplund y Aalto eravisto como antipatritico 25, y slo aspueden entenderse algunas dificultadesposteriores de Asplund.

Pero la conexin ms certera al res-pecto procede de diversos viajes deMendelsohn: a Estados Unidos en1924, donde recibi una viva impre-sin que dej relatada en una publica-cin posterior (Amerika: Bilderbuch ei-nes Archtekten) , y la invitacin pararealizar el diseo de una fbrica textilen Leningrado donde viajara en 1925y 1926, Sus impresiones como europeo

quedaron relatadas en 1929 (Russland,Europa, Amerika: Ein Architektonis-cher Querschnitt), reflexionando sobreel estado de la tcnica y sugiriendo huirde las polaridades: entre estos dos po-los de la tarea humana, Europa podrmeditar si regresa a la conciencia deunir sus miembros desintegrados enuna unidad slida 26.

En suma, en Estocolmo no se hizo dela arquitectura moderna un Estilo In-ternacional, sino otro funcionalismo mshumano: un Nuevo estilo que eliminel estilo, un nuevo lenguaje desnudo:el lenguaje de los hechos 27. El mani-fiesto posterior, con un ttulo significa-tivo (Acceptad!), pona de manifiestola brecha entre la generacin anterior,con actitudes del pasado, y los jvenesimplicados en las exigencias de la nue-va arquitectura. Como los pabellonesde la Exposicin se destruyeron, toda-

va hoy los dibujos que perduran y lasfotografas animan a reconstruir el con-junto, pues si olvidamos las relacionesde arquitectura y lugar, la fruicin de losciudadanos y el afn de progreso en losoficios, perdemos la idea de una arqui-tectura que sigue siendo autntica, delafn de configurar una cultura para unasociedad renovada.

20/ CECILIA WIDENHEIM & EVA RUDBERG (eds.): Vardagensutopier, en Utopi &verklighet: svensk modernism 1900-1960.Catlogo de la exposicin Moderna Museet, Stockholm, 2000,pg. 153.21/ GUSTAF NSSTRM: Svensk funktionalism, Stockholm,1931.22/ BRUNO ZEVI: Erik Gunnar Asplund. Editorial Infinito. BuenosAires, 1957. pg 62.23/ PETER BLUNDELL- JONES: op. cit., pg. 140.

24/ CALDENBY HULTIN, Ed. G. Gili, Barcelona, pg. 39.25/ C. ENGFORS: E. G. Asplund Architect, Friend and Colleague.Laholm, Arkitektur Frlag, 1990. pg. 124.

AgradecimientosA Jos Manuel Lpez-Pelez, que nos transmiti su pasinpor E.G. Asplund. A Bengt Egdman, siempre presente por susprecisiones sobre S. Lewerentz en ILA&UD. Al personal delStockholms Stadsarkiv y Arkitektur Museet por su diligen-cia y amabilidad. A A. Lindqvist por su cobijo y simpata.Las fuentes grficas proceden de Arkitektur Museet, Stoc-kholms Stadsarkiv y Wikipedia Commons. Algunas fotogra-fas fueron realizadas in situ por el autor, que ha reelabora-do las plantas incluidas, desde fuentes varias.

26/ ARNOLD WHITTICK: Eric Mendelsohn. Leonard Hill, Londres1964, pgs.71-72.27/ IVAR LO-JOHANSSON: Frfattaren. 1957. Citado porE.Rudberg: Stockholmsutstllningen 1930. pg. 15.


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1/ D. WHEELER: Art since mid-century, Thames&Hudson, 1991, pp. 262-269.J. MADERUELO: The construction of contemporarylandscape. CDAN Huesca 2008, pp. 14-19, and 25-27.2/ JOHN CAGE: Silence. Wesleyan University Press,Connecticut. 1961. En la pg. 93 vemos un intercambioentre Schoenberg y Cage: el maestro pidi a Cagesoluciones a un problema: Hice como me dijo. De nuevopregunt, Otra. Y as varias veces. Al fin dije No hay ms

soluciones. El pregunt: Cul es el principio quesubyace a todas las soluciones?3/ HEIDEGGER, MARTIN: Moira (Parmnide, VIII, 34-41).

PUBLIC SPACES, SILENT ARCHITECTS:CONCERNING THE 1930 INTERNATIONALEXHIBITION, STOCKHOLM

by Antonio Milln-Gmez

To Dona Ana Gimnez de Coderchs amiable memory

In Industry, Form is a Verb. In Art, Form is a noun.

Buckminster Fuller

Any clear exposition of modern Nordic Architecturesoon leads to matters that transcend appearance:thus, the dialogue between vernacular architectureand classicism, the emergence of a humanized en-vironment and new modes of public space. Walkingtoday along already tread paths evoke sensat ionsthat can be understood from contemporary Land Art:its unavoidable rectitude brings us close to some pro-posals by Richard Long or John Cage, for travers-ing those spaces is inseparable from an experienceof time1, movable, allowing the discovery of imagi-nary landscapes through irresolution, void or chance 2.The leaders of Modernity crawled by the parks of Ha-ga and Drottningholm, and we find among their firstworks tracings similar to those by Swede Baroquearchitects, Tessin, Piper or Adelcrantz. At the sametime, the difference between the act of building anda construction already built, or the fusion of spiritu-ality and empathy with nature, all point towards amodern issue: the difference between being and per-ceiving3.Some questions are posed in the contrast with pre-ceding traditions. A supposed doricismcan be un-derstood, owing to austerity in front of a difficult eco-nomical situation and to ethic values that approachedsocial groups, reconfiguring the act of building sus-tained by a logic and mytho logy roote d in earth.Silently, a compromise between simple and vernac-ular construction and classicist stereotomy wasformed. We underline the adverb silently, since aconstruction in which nature and culture would berecognized went beyond customary modes4. SomeMediterranean sources were transfigured in its newdestiny within a syncretism where collective spaces,belonging to everybody and to nobody, permitted at-titudes and media previously non exis tent: It is notthat the silent arch itects say nothing, but it is whatthey do, yet are- by the complexity of invention- un-aware of doing and therefore cannot talk about thatshifts the tide of architecture It is perhaps onlywhen a work joins as-of-naturewith another workwhose origin is other, whose intention is other, thata single impulse turns into an observable tide, andchanges our view of the present5. And at the sametime, a feeling as if a city was better served by spe-cific places which unveil activities and how they af-

has the right to a tenth part of this list. The choice hasbeen very easy, since it is probable that the most of-ten reproduced Spanish architectural drawing is thesketch by Alejandro de la Sota of the section of theColegio Maravillas Gymnasium(1962).In the drawing, the best part of his project is synthe-sised, since it is evident that his guiding idea rests onan intelligent use of curved, inverted trusses whichcan only be understood by means of the transver-sal section. Thus, in this small sketch we can appre-ciate, as well as the structural solution, and the threelevels of use attained: the solar illumination, the crossventilation and the steep seating for the public.It would only remain for us to discuss whether theseare the most representative drawings of the Moder-nity or whether we should include others on the samefooting.Without wishing to be exhaustive, I would like to fin-ish this list by citing some of the drawings which al-most all of us can remember and which could opt fora place in any canon: the drawings of Antonio San-tElia forLa Citt Nuova (1914) and of Tony Garnier forUne Cit Industrielle(1917). The Monument to theThird Internationalby Vladimir Tatlin (1919); the pre-sentational drawing for the Chicago Tribunecompe-tition by Adolf Loos (1922); any of the drawings of theDanteumby Giuseppe Terragni (1938); the collagesof the Archigram Group, among which I would selectthe Walking Citiesby Ron Herron (1964); the axono-metric projection of the History Faculty of CambridgeUniversityby James Stirling (1964) and any of the ax-onometric projections of the New York Fiveexhibit-ed in the MOMA in 1967.And finally, I would select any of the colouristic draw-ings of Aldo Rossi to explain the Cemetery of Mod-ena (1972): drawings in which, as well as evoking thearchitecture of the dead, an end to utopias and thehorrors of the past century are metaphorically con-densed, perhaps without Rossi himself being con-scious of it: concentration camps, depressing hous-ing blocks, inhuman cities, loneliness, sadness anddisenchantment.

esting sketches than those of the observatory, suchas those of the Schocken Department Store inStuttgart, but the fact that the Einstein Toweris thecanonical work of German expressionism means thatthis drawing is the most representative.The two previous drawings, and that which we willnow comment upon, are separated by very few years.However, each of them speaks to us of very differenttheoretical and formal concerns: those of Nordic ro-manticism, organic expressionism and cubist abstrac-tion. Wi thin this latter school, the drawings for theseries Counter Compositionby Theo van Doesburg

(1923) stand out, formed of variations of floating plansof primary colours which intermingle, and with whichtheir author attempted to express, among o ther val-ues of the modern age, a new concept of fluid space,a dynamic treatment of shape and a new represen-tation of architecture.Another great architect of the modern age who stoodout for his drawings and graphic abilities was LouisI. Kahn. We all know the drawings and paintings ofhis trip to Italy, Egypt and Greece in 1950 and 1951,and even the numerous drawings of his travels whichhe carried out during his holidays, starting with hisfirst trip to Italy in 1929. Some of his pastel drawingsfrom the 1950s have been reproduced many times,especially the two versions of the Piazza in Siena, inwhich he depicts the square as a large empty space,without people, surrealistically, with colours so bright

that, if we did not know that they were made in au-tumn, we might imagine that Kahn wanted to reflectthe torrid colours of summer sunsets. But for this listwe are forced to choose the plan of the roofs of theYale University Art Gallery(1951-53). There is a rea-son for this: Kahn greatly valued this drawing, somuch so that it was this one which he used to offerwhen was asked for a drawing for publication.Another obligatory drawing in this section would bethat made by Jrn Utzon for theSydney Opera Housecompetition (1957). In it, Utzon shows the guidingidea of his project: a large platform which juts outinto the bay, imposing its strong presence and onwhich the cascades of concrete which cover thetwo auditoria were to be gracefully erected. We canappreciate how this drawing masterfully expressesthat idea, thanks to a highly selective use of the in-formation which Utzon wished to transmit to themembers of the jury. Indeed, the shadows cast helpus to perceive the platform and its relief with greatersharpness, as well as the functional differentiationof the spaces: the lower entrance zone to the build-ing, the rise and meeting with the monumental ed-ifice, the two rooms which bring to mind the am-phitheatres of ancient times, etc.And now it only remains to include in this canon onelast drawing. I have reserved this place for a Span-ish drawing, on the understanding that our country


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The contrast persists in proposals for Malm chapelsand crematorium: the latter evolved between 1924and 1930, surpassing Durands principles, up to the1930-36 progress, which shocks by its value as con-temporary architecture, and would not surprise in theleast, if signed today by a professional. In a similarway, the 1924 main chapel evolved from a modelbased on the Erecteion with a bond of spaces andgeneric orientation, foreseeing the architecture ofthe Resurrection Chape l, and transitions as v ivid asR. Long suggested experiences. The stair climbing toEnskede Meditation Grove recreates what a series

of steps should be: its risers diminish in successiveflights with a changing sequence of treads (9, 12, 12,12, 12, 12, 10), up to the final access to a plateau whichenables overall sight, horizontal rest and global im-age, in order to start walking down by a long andstraight slope, the path of Seven Wells, and proceedto walk towards the por tico. F rom here, controlledmovements follow a deep ritual: entrance from theNorth, movement to the baldachin from Sunset to Eastand vice-versa, under dim light coming from a smallSouth wall window, where it is differentiated from thesubtle buttresses nearby, and, finally, way out to lightand a level lower than the entrance (end of time, rit-ual ascension and final rest).Lewerentz also proposed in 1924 a semi-circularspace as main entrance to Enskede Skogskirkogr-den, to welcome visitors coming from public and pri-

vate transport, plus a telephone booth and flowerkiosk, adding an allusion to the Greek Propilea andburdening the access. The Stockholms Cemetery Au-thority consulted Currman, Wahlman and stberg ,who cleared buildings and clarified a neat access11,putting emphasis on todays plinth with a fountainto the left of the access and planting trees on the soilsretained over them. Thereafter, the work nucleus atthis area was the sequence of images discoveredfrom this transition, with a vertical element system-atically changed as the proposal evolved (sculpturegroup, obelisk, cross taken from Caspar Friedrich, fi-nally Lundquists Resurrection Monument, fig. 2C),with consequences for the architecture -crematori-um and chapels- as well as for the landscape, whichwas to acquire its breath-taking elements here.The North-South orientation generates a perceptu-al impact hardly forgettable, since we are placed infront of a sun-lit sky. A wind-blown concave grass-land, under clouds lightened by a setting sun, whichhelps to articulate the lateral sequences in which theentrance path is divided: on one side, the Way of theCross up to the chapels and Asplunds crematorium,and next to it columbaria on the gravel pitch discard-ed as building site; and on the other side, a straightline path which overcomes all topographic accidents.The correlation between both sequences deservesattention, owing to its connection with previous ex-

sense, it is sufficient to contrast Hrings organic ideaand the appalling rationality of Mies van der Rohesblock; we should not avoid the sources (T. Fischer)which nourished Hring and Lewerentz in what con-cerns us here. Shortly afterwards, Bryggman and Aal-to undertaking in Turku (1929) unveils the exchangesin the area, up to the Stockholm Exhibition (1930), un-surpassed as show of Modern architecture.The meeting of young Asplund and Lewerentz atMalm Exhibition (1914), where the latter showed hisdesign for the Helsinborg chapel-crematorium (withStubelius, figs. 1A, 1B), opened the path to a later col-

laboration. It is difficult to separate architecture andritual in these works or even ignore the Italian con-nection (Villa dEste)8: its sense of unity reveals Lew-erentz position (access counterpoised to garden; thechapel, to the urns court; the roofed church, to theopen court) to German Werkbund and the Arts andCrafts Swedish Association through T. Fischer: Therecognition of artistic values is intimately linked toour times common cultural aim: the effort towardssocial harmony, order and unified conduct of workand life. Owing to his German experience, Lewer-entz encountered the reform ideas of the Bund frHeimatschutz which sought to preserve a senseof continuity, while espousing modern functional at-titudes toward grappling with the forces of industri-alization9, some fifteen years before these subjectswere openly debated in Sweden.

The mentioned elements were alive in their proposalfor Enskede Skogskirkogrden (1915). The motto (Tal-lum) alludes to villa Tallom by I. L.Wahlman, to a Ro-mantic architecture with vernacular convictions fromwhich rationality could be sought10. A series of pro-posals for this work let us see how landscape wasfigured out, since several solutions followed A.E.Phlman (1910) lay-out, until the closest to the onebuilt (1932): the access to the main chapel runs alongthe line of minimum topographic slope in the com-petition model (1915, figs. 2A, 2B) and trees on bothsides hide the final destiny, a waiting for arrival, whichwould have introduced much expectation. But thecharacter of the landscape and chapels was alteredin a process that lasted twenty five years, whilst theauthors matured their architecture: Lewerentz showedthis transformation quite soon in Malm cemetery,where the tomb stalls general plan (1918-19, fig. 1C)can be compared with previous parks -Drottningholmand Kungstgarden-, still appreciated in existing en-gravings by Erik Dahlberg (Suecia antiqua et hodier-na, 1692). The change of ideas can be equally per-ceived in his graphic production: already in the projectfor Malm theatre (1924-27) drawings -which allowcomparison with the Schinkel collection (SammlungArchitektonischer Entwerfe)- give way to another pro-posal in a second competition, with E. Lallerstedt andD. Helldn (1935), that today startles.

fect our sense of identity: A man-made landscapecapable of survival evolved in the nineteenth cen-tury when public parks had to accept mass use by allclasses (an idea so unusual that Olmsted remarkedon the good behaviour of working people in PaxtonsBirkenhead Park). The idea taken by Olmsted to NewEngland returned to Scandinavia where again, in thenineteen thirties, the inescapable characteristics ofthe landscape as found - that had to be worked with-resulted in another idea: that of what can survivewith what maintenance the society of the massescan afford. The landscape that can surviveis basi-cally what will grow despite the passing vehicle;guide or discourage encroachment by whom-so-everthe vehicle has brought to pass; withstand the rav-ages of summer, winter and wind in the opened-upcity; manage to look presentable with only minimalcare. But this style can only stretch so far.... it cancover but it can never make specific or adhesive ter-ritories within the city-pulled-apart6.Is it paradoxical that Lewerentz, designer with As-plund of Enskede Skogskirkogrden at the south ofStockholm, could also produce the signals and somevehicles for General Motors at 1930 Exhibition? Be-tween the nineteen twenties and thirt ies the pres-ence of machine became customary, and architectsthat contributed the images of speed gave shape tomodern landscape: possession of territory and me-chanical movement changed the architects expe-rience; the first generation travelled in open aero-

planes with open able windows (Behrens, Gropius,Le Corbusier), the second generation actually builtfor airfields (Prouv, Jacobsen), and the third gener-ation saw the territory from an aeroplane with cur-tained windows.

A decade of exhibitions; farewell to classicismMediterranean travels were followed by exhibitions,in a sequence and links with art models and move-ments rigorously established7: there seemed to be areduction of themes from Malms Baltic Exhibition(1914) to the Home Exhibition at Stockholm LiljevachGallery (1917), but Gteborg Exhibition (1923) recov-ered the ground, as extensive show of Swedish Clas-sicism, spanning from Arts and Crafts to Urban con-struction. Two years later the Paris Arts and CraftsExhibition appreciated the Swedish Grace, with the

added bonus that Le Corbusiers ideas were dissem-inated throughout Scandinavia from the Esprit Nou-veau Pavilion. The Swedish pavilion was classicist,by Bergsten, and not that by Asplund, whose senseof promenadewas much closer to modern develop-ment. That same year the housing exhibition Byggeoch Bo in Liding (1925) introduced functional cri-teria for standardized housing, albeit still with neo-classic gestures. And the trend continued until the1927 Stuttgart Weissenhof Siedlung, which signalledtendencies and emarginated German values: in this

Wilson: The Dilemma of Classicism. Arch. Association,1988. The series of silent architects was listed AlisonSmithson First instalment of the identity of silent architectsin Modern Movement: In the First Generation: SigurdLewerentz, Suecia; Dimitri Pikionis, Grecia; KonstantinMelnikov, Rusia. In the Second Generation: Charles y RayEames, California; Jos Antonio Coderch, Espaa; Max Bill,Switzerland/ Germany. In the Third Generation: RalphErskine, Sweden.

6/ SMITHSON, A+P: Territory. Italian Thoughts, edited byBengt Egdman.7/ MIKKOLA, KIRMO: The transition from classicism to

Essais et conferences. Ed. Gallimard, published inPfullingen, 1954. The interpretation of what could beperception according to Leibniz, Kant and its modern senseallows us to understand the meaning of the phrase headingthis paper. A distinction between the Greek notions of eonand einaiwould be close to that realized by B. Fuller for theterm form, either with verbal or substantive character.4/ PORPHYRIOS, DEMETRI: Caras reversibles:Arquitectura danesa y sueca 1905-1930. En AAVV.: Erik

Gunnar Asplund, edited by Jos Manuel Lpez-Pelez. Ed.Stylos, Barcelona, 1990, page 46.5/ ALISON + PETER SMITHSON: Foreword to Colin St. John

functionalism in Scandinavia. (The 2ond International AlvarAalto Symposium), Jyvskyl 1982.RUDBERG, EVA: Stockholmsutstllningen 1930.Modernismens genombrott i svensk arkitektur. StockholmiaFrlag, 1999, pgs 19-23.ERIKSSON, EVA: Den Moderna staten tar form. Ordfrontfrlag AB, 2001.8/ GARCA MONTALVO, PEDRO (Las Villas de Roma.Coleccin de Arquitectura. Murcia 1984). The author states

in the Forword, page 22, only one is visited today assuch, for its overall meritsand not by some isolated aspect.It is the Villa dEste, TivoliIntegrated design well

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observed by Lewerentz.9/ CONSTANT, CAROLINE: The Woodland Cemetery:Toward a Spiritual Landscape. Erik Gunnar Asplund andSigurd Lewerentz 1915-1961. Byggfrlaget, Stockholm1994, page 22.10/ See Villa Ainola, by Lars Sonck for J. Sibel ius, as well.11/ Caroline Constant: op. cit. pp. 80-82. Relations betweenEnskede, Drottningholm and Piper indicated in page 83.12/ NOLIN, CATHARINA: Drottningholms slottspark. Statens

Fastighetsverk, Stockholm, 2000, pp. 23-27.13/ C. Constant:op.cit. pp.72-79./ C. Nolin: op. cit, pp. 30-37.14/ LPEZ-PELEZ, JOS MANUEL: La arquitectura de

Gunnar Asplund. Arquthesis. 2002. pp 74-90.15/ J.M. Lpez-Pelez: op. cit. page 91. The exteriorclearness has its counterpart in the interior proposal, witha spatial idea developed by A. Aalto in the RautataloHelsinki, 1952.16/ Descriptions can be fou nd in E. RUDBERG (1999); J.M.LPEZ-PELEZ, H. FERNNDEZ ELORZA; E. RUDBERG:Asplund: Exposicin Universal de Estocolmo. 1930.Ministerio de la Vivienda. Ed. Rueda, 2004/ PETER

BLUNDELL JONES: Gunnar Asplund. Phaidon.2006/ as wellas the Stads arkiv webpage. The information for this paperhas been consulted at the Archives where original sources

are preserved as well as some antique catalogues, such asB. SYDHOFF (Frord): 1930/80. Arkitektur/ Form/ Konst.Kulturhuset. 1980.17/ P. BLUNDELL-JONES: op. cit. page 134.18/ The Final Report of Results (REDOGRELSE FRSTOCKHOLMS- UTSTLLNINGEN 1930/Arkitektur MuseetArkiv) includes a comparison: the number of visitors was3.895.682 (29.512 daily) and exchanges amounted inSwedish Crowns to 2.334.087;75 Kr., which compare quite

positively with exhibitions organized in 1897 (1.253.571visitors and 1.059.514;50 Kr.) and in 1909 (691.224 visitorsand 550.546;5 Kr).

Site and setting of the 1930 Stockholm ExhibitionOriented towards South and the lagoon, the placeraised slowly towards Djurgrden at East, close andvisible from the centre of the bourgeois city. A stopand turning for tramways and buses, near the wa-ter edge, as well as a jetty facilitated the access. As-plund sketched a linear organization shaped as astreet (Corso, fig. 4C) profiting from the water pos-sibilities at the North edge, and placing a footbridgewhere the lagoon narrows, which lead to the attrac-tions park a t the oppos ed edge. Access co uld begained by an open portico towards the lagoon edge,

after the transport stop, and from it to a group of pavil-ions parallel to the Corso and the lagoon, the flowwas later split and the street had to turn, articulatingwith a hemispherical Planetarium, its axis leading toa little street among kiosks, shows and existing trees,up to the restaurant near the water.The Corso runned parallel to the water up to its fur-ther edge , and it widened at this poin t by means ofa straight wooden path. Several pavilions with inter-mediary courts at north, and access to lesser onesat their rear gave sensation of urban depth; and thespace between the Corso and the lagoon was trans-formed into the Festival Square, limited by restau-rant Paradise at East, the most striking building inthe Exhibition, free from the Corso and military build-ings at the backyard (fig. 4B). A great annunciationpole, with a hanging press cabin, was the exhibition

main landmark for the outside World, adding plas-ticity to the public space. The walk followed with an-other alignment of pavilions towards East, close tothe wate r edge , includin g the apprecia ted SveaViken, devoted to Swedish history and identity; amass of existing trees changed there the edge char-acter and the exhibiting area could widen again, withan attraction fair at North, and another park towardsSouth, after the pedestrian bridge was crossed. Atthis point a series of housing pro totypes, designedby Swedish Modern architects, begun; arranged asa mere collection of objects, disregarding the pub-lic space or the urban tissue, fact criticized by A. Aal-to, among others.The above description is a reading of the generalplan16 (figure 4A). But the section was equally rele-vant, not only in pavilions with two or three floors, butalso in the treatment of the ground floor, especiallyin the restaurant Paradise.The beginning of the Corso by the access was builtby means of some steps on the water edge in orderto approach the walk to the lagoon, whilst the pavil-ions were arranged at the opposed side on top of aplinth. Most of Asplunds sketches for ground floorswere row buildings, with several platforms height-ened over the natural topography. There was a wood-en tree grove between the Planetarium and the la-goon Edge, used as a garden that could hide the

chitecture in those years was anew and without mer-cy, whilst architectural, constructive, and place re-visions were obliged in Nordic undertakings. In somecases, parallels have been perceived, though pro-gram and finality were different: as in the linear de-velopment at Enskede Skogskirkogrden and theStockholm Exhibition.

Towards the 1930 Stockholm ExhibitionThe opening of Stockholm City Library in 1928 re-vealed the climate of Swedish Architecture. A sim-ple perspective on Byggmstaren cover and the short,functional comments by Asplund indicate a change,

stirred up by Uno hren (1897-1977) with hard andenlightened tones (The City Library seems to me atragedy in the -unresolved- competence between dif-

ferent visions of form. It is at the edge between two

periods of Swedish Architecture deeply different in

their mentalities). Its decoration and monumentali-ty were alien to him, not to mention the immedia teenvironment: few metres away the dome of GustavVasa, church completed twenty two years before,lets us see why another dome would be redundantover the great lending hall; that is, why Asplund sawunfeasible his first project. hren had already shownhis interest on the Esprit Nouveau Pavilion at 1925Paris Exhibition and, as Byggmstareneditor (1929-32), town planner and architect, he was about to de-velop his talent: the words above quoted were ut-tered a t th e ti me of h is c ollab oration for the KTH

Students Building (1928-30) with S. Markelius, whodeveloped an interest for the Bauhaus at Dessau,close relations with Gropius and a compromise withCIAM. His visit to Weissenhof, as Asplund and Pauls-son, explains the atmosphere before the 1930 Stock-holm Exhibition: fostered by the Swedish Associationfor Crafts, reorganized in 1915 to elaborate machine-made products, the reason why the Deutsche Werk-bund had been divided a year before.The Home Exhibition at Liljevach Gallery, that of Paris(1925), and the urge caused by the organization of theWeissenhof Exhibition in Stuttgart gave rise to a big-ger show. A working committee (Paulsson, Asplundand H. Lagerstrm), financed by the State, the Cityand several benefactors, proposed in few days theorganization to Paulsson and Asplund, centred onthree sections of Swedish products for the home, the

house and the Street. With a site and programmeready in June, 1928, Asplund is commissioned a de-sign not preserved. The temporary buildings werethought as vaults with laminated wood frames andsides open, very much like the Ittalla pavilion for Turku1929 Exhibition. This version is presented and reject-ed in August, 1928: Paulsson and Asplund travelledthen to see and meet other exhibitions, people andplaces (Brno, Stuttgart, Paris), and by the end of thatyear another proposal is ready on plan and model,this time well received by the committee.

amples and to their role as seminal idea for the 1930International Exhibition.A similar split was designed at a smaller scale inmid- 17th century by C. F. Adelcrantz and C. J. Cron-stedt, preserved at Nationalmuseum; it links todayFloras Hill, the Chinese Pavilion and both sides atDrottningholm Park12 (fig. 3A). Adelcrantz arrangedchestnut avenues to be planted around the Pavilion,with aviaries and varied buildings. Only wild green-ery and a pool remain from the menageriebehindthe l ittle fores t. The constructions facing the Chi-nese Pavilion might seem odd at first, notwithstand-

ing the rare comments on them: their bases can beseen from the access as rustic constructions andas slopes to solve the difference in height; a glancebehind the walls shows brick vaulting resting up-on stone walls. The duality between upper and low-er levels, with respective functions of serving andserved spaces, is at the West pavilion that of an of-fice for a kitchen and a resting room where the roy-al family can converse en confidence, without anyother connection than a mechanical elevator toserve drinks or food. Is this coexistence of rusticand classic architecture a correlate of a much need-ed coexistence of social layers?Axial articulation is evident at the end of this BaroqueGarden, where a wooden mass around a forest clear-ing (Boskn Stjrnan) orientates our walk toward ahill similar to the Meditation Grove at Enskede (fig.3C).

Gustav III commissioned an ideal English park in 1780to Fredr ik Magnus Piper, to be buil t at the North o fthe Baroque Garden. This project, preserved at theKungl. Akademien fr de frie Konsterna, shows a net-work of markings, customary operation from this timeonwards: the overall geometric regulation is to bemade from some structured, punctual foci, and notfrom the intrinsic geometry of plantings. Ponds, chan-nels, islands, wide meadows and luxuriant trees es-tabli shed a frame for the relat ion with build ings(fig.3B). Key-points were adorned with marble stat-ues, copies of those bought by Gustav III in his trav-el to Italy in 1783-4. Here, as in Haga13, a pavilion im-itating a Turkish tent allows us to understand theEnskede service pavilion.A new dialogue between heritage and public spacewas established from competitions for public spaces,emblematic in the Gteborg Town Hall extension, fol-lowed with masterly care by J.M. Lpez-Pelez14, whoshows detail after detail the whole design process,together with changes in perception of the complexformed by the original building and adjacent construc-tions, the differences of scale at Gustav Adolf squareand the access options, transforming what was atthe beginning an enlargement of the build ing into adialogue between internal structure and urban in-tegration, which is bound to produce in 1924 an Or-dering project for this square15. Centre-European ar-


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also see their tables lit by big Japanese paper lamp-shades during the night. The building could be felt asa stadium surrounded by pavilions opened at the frontto the exhibition space and closed as much as pos-sible to the back side.The Park Restaurant showed the most playful and en-joyable aspect, starting with its location: orientedto sunset, towards the city, and ending the axis be-gun at the Planetarium, it was protected by treeswhich gave intimacy and connection with the place.On its South side, tables could reach a dock at thewater edge. A central kitchen served three diningareas at the perimeter of the first storey, and theground floor had a similar distribution for clients inthe open air protected by the building. The plan showsa haste produced design, conditioned by diversityand the need to signify the corner, turning the rearwind towards an opening to the park at the back (figs.7 D, 7E). Its four cafeterias (Ellida, Bljeblick, Puckand Lilla Paris) show a search of variety within a lim-ited space. The terrace opened towards South-West(Ellida) was shaped as a ship, whilst the hall facingNorth (Puck) had a glazed roof, and there O.G. Carl-sund selected a much debated collection of concreteart. The best orientation, towards South and the la-goon, was occupied by cafe Bljeblick (sight ofwaves), with a doubtful section, where the compro-mise to join views, diversity and joy can be appreci-ated.

Transcendence of the Exhibition and following debateOpen between 16th of May and the end of September,the Exhibition took advan tage of good seasonalweather and was a complete success, in visitors andcommercial exchanges18, also in debate intensity be-gun with the manifesto Acceptera! (Accept!). Clas-sicism did not interest any more, neither any otherperiod architect. Hence, the authors radicalism (His-tory could not provide any lesson19) and its decisiveideological operation: authentic continuity exceedsthe plurality of styles. So, debate followed: function-alist architecture appeared for these architects asa response to a series of problems of architectureand society, prepared during a long time 20. But, thesame year of the manifesto it was argued that theroots of Swedish functionalism could be found in ver-nacular construction21.

The resource to criticism created a distance from thecrunch of debate. Zevi pointed new directions whenhe stated that Widening, enrich the figurative dic-tionary of Modern Architecture cutting the ties withcubism, and especially with the purist tendency; in-venting new organisms, liberating from the T rule,stimulating fantasy towards more vivid and flexiblecreations, that was the attempt of the 1930 revolu-tion22. The Paradise restaurant as built object23 andits asymmetrical distribution can be explained by itsconnection with the Shocken store by Mendelsohn

tion directed views towards the lagoon and openedthe corner; terraces in front of it were skewed evenfurther, making evident the change of course. Oncewithin the building, since kitchens were aligned withthe main dining hall, a square hall used as dancingarea was forced to the buildings corner, becomingthe cent re of attention of the whole complex . It re-mains as such today, but for architectural reasons:here the rationalist box vanishes, becoming a trans-parent curved container of an empty space articu-lated on different levels in different ways; even more,it marks the continuity of flows and activities between

both sides of the building and between inside andoutside, and, since this elements so marked the ex-hibition, the message was sent to the Festival Squareand the urban domain further away, acquiring a dif-ferent scale and territorial dimension.The most photographed landmark was a semicircu-lar drum (fig. 7A), different from classical symmetri-cal compositions. It turned until another glazed faadewas reached, facing the lagoon and sunshine. A cir-cular balcony on the first floor forced to set back thesuperior drum with a lesser radius, and Asplund pro-jected half glazed bay glazed at two thirds of the be-ginning of the dancing hall, an articulation which pro-duces an illusory corner, and a vanishing of the box.The faade achieved a sensation of change of scale,indicating the importance of the dancing hall at thecorner as heart of the exhibition. The section shows

how the ground floor was left behind, with space be-tween co lumns and acting as shopping stree t to-wards the Festival Square; it was possible to walkbetween terrace tables and under the corner, read-able as abstract space between pilotis. In such walkbetween columns shops were found with a formadapted to the environment, retreating up to two me-tres at the restaurants main entrance, there toilettesand wardrobe led to two stairs: on the left up to themain restaurant, on the right up to the dancing hall.Landings are located strategically directing to upperlevels and only in the dancing hall the movement islong-wise and transversal, as articulation of the com-plex. Asplund had shown that he could transfer hissense of architectural promenade from the straightaxial sequence of the Neo-classical library to theasymmetrical and angled methods of Modernismmore or less overnight17, sequence that was to ap-pear in the work of Aalto and Scharoun, but neitherof them had achieved it by 1930 (fig. 7B).The building was built in steel structure with threebays of four metres in both directions, dimensionsthat allowed flexibility, (either two six-metre or threefour-metre bays). Terraces served by a higher levelof kitchens at the main restaurant and dancing hall,to profit volume and vistas, allowed guests to have aclear sight, added to the festive atmosphere and theeffect of a great exterior space( fig. 7C). They could

Festival Square from the access and protected thePark restaurant. Everything would have been moredifficult without this garden and another woodenmass at a far distance; both favoured the gardening,even by burying some pipes to warm plants and bulbs,ready and bloomed for the opening celebration.Some pavilions -as that of Transport- were striking:its steel porticoes at the back hall had a curved, un-usual section, which, from the rear was projectedover the roof (fig. 5B). And the front elevation was ar-ticulated by means of additions. The Planetarium witha hemispherical dome for 700 people and a dark in-

terior for projections from a Zeiss operator, (anotherreference to Asplunds starred sky, fig. 5C), orientedpeople towards the smaller buildings leading to thelagoon and the Park restaurant, or to the followingsequence along the Corso, where several pavilionsshowed industrial products. These opened to sidecourts with smaller porticoes, inciting curiosity andavoiding repetition by the contrast between sides andthe levels interplay.The Festival Square (fig. 6A) was the outside spacethat signalled the Exhibition, with its two restaurants,terraces and amusement places for 50.000 people.Limited at its North side by the Corso, by the lagoonat its South, and both restaurants on its sides, it wasmarked by a 74 metres pole, showing the Exhibitionsymbol and light signs. The lettering, exhibition logoand posters all were by S. Lewerentz after previous

competition. And a festive atmosphere with flagpolesand ornaments added was subjected to prior analy-sis, to show night profiles and light effects, this guar-anteed by several generators: fluorescent lights re-flected on the Access Pavilion columns were visiblefrom the city( fig. 5A), bestowing lightness and imma-teriality. Photographs of that time show pavilion pro-files, poles and reflections over a dark background.An acoustic reflector for orchestra, later developedfor Gteborg Concert Hall, lodged the Exhibition or-chestra, and several bands, pianos and choirs withthousands of voices played with this occasion. Therewere film projections, theatre, ballet and gymnasticsshows and fireworks, reflected on the lagoons wa-ters, visible from great part of the city (fig. 6B), as wellas swimming and rowing, for competition or pleas-ure.The Corsos corner was presided by restaurant Par-

adise. There the Svenska Dagbladetpress office ap-peared before turning Leith in front of a public serv-ice building with two storeys, curved and glazed.Thus, the path was prepared to the restaurant withroom for one thousand people at the main dining area,and for four hundred in both smaller banquet halls,served by kitchens at their rear, aligned in three lev-els. This was the Festival Squares architectural back-ground, their articulated volumes indicating that theexhibition followed after the corners turn. Its inflec-

Colleague. Laholm, Arkitektur Frlag, 1990. pg. 124.26/ ARNOLD WHITTICK: Eric Mendelsohn. Leonard Hill,Londres 1964, pgs.71-72.27/ IVAR LO-JOHANSSON: Frfattaren. 1957. Citado porE.Rudberg: Stockholmsutstllningen 1930. pg. 15.

19/ Eva Eriksson: op. cit., pg. 46520/ CECILIA WIDENHEIM & EVA RUDBERG (eds.):Vardagens utopier, en Utopi &verklighet: svenskmodernism 1900-1960. Catlogo de la exposicin ModernaMuseet, Stockholm, 2000, pg. 153.21/ GUSTAF NSSTRM: Svensk funktionalism,Stockholm, 1931.22/ BRUNO ZEVI: Erik Gunnar Asplund. Editorial Infinito.Buenos Aires, 1957. pg 62.

23/ Peter Blundell-Jones: op. cit., pg. 140.24/ CALDENBY HULTIN, Ed. G. Gili, Barcelona, pg. 39.25/ C. ENGFORS: E. G. Asplund Architect, Friend and

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FORM AS MOULD. FORM AS PROCESS

by JavierMonedero

This paper is divided into two parts. The first, empha-sizes that we are in front of a universal problem. Andassumes that, like all universal problems, we cantrace its presence throughout history with trends thatemphasize one or the other extreme and are oftendependent upon social and political conjunctures.The second, attempts to summarize the main lines ofthe current situation, emphas izing also the fact thatthese trends are intensified by complexity and adopt

particular variants that are relevant to the presentsituation and are worthy of extensive comments. Butfor the reasons mentioned in the first part, we shouldtake enough distance to judge its real importance.

I1. Consider the following two statements: A circleis the locus of all points equidistant from one givenpoint. A circle is created by rotating a compass onone of its supports, starting from any point and giv-ing a full turn to return to the same point. The firststatement tells us what is a circle, gives an essen-tial description of it. The second gives the procedureto create it; it is a recipe that describes the steps nec-essary to reach a result. The first has more to do withperception and understanding. The second has moreto do with action.You can put the emphasis on one or the other of thesetwo statements. But both are necessary because wecannot act if we fail to perceive adequately, in aclever, understanding mode. And we cannot perceivewell if our perceptions do not feed back on actionsthat are progressively enriched.Descriptions, drawings, images, characterize formunderstood as a template. In the end, detailed de-scriptions tends to coincide with the described. Butthis is meaningless as, indeed, every description in-corporates fragments of processes: hints of informa-tion, symmetry, proportions, relations, primary or sec-ondary features.Algorithms, recursive iteration, generative formulations,characterize form understood as a process. In the end,as happens with some fractals, a few symbols can gen-erate extremely complex forms. But this set of symbols,isolated, would be meaningless were it not accompa-

nied by fragments of descriptions: additional indica-tions, possible outcomes that illustrate its meaning.

2. Greece. Fifth Century BC. The Athens of Pericles,the quintessential polis, the fairest city of the Mediter-ranean that hosts the most famous monuments at thathistoric moment and those that will follow it, monu-ments conceived from increasingly refined structures,from archetypal shapes, is also the city of Socratesand Plato. And Plato, who lives during the final yearsof this golden epoch, leaves to posterity, among oth-

at Stockholm International Exhibition into an Inter-national Style, but into a more humane functional-ism: a New Style that eliminated style, a new barelanguage; the language of facts27. Since all pavil-ions were destroyed, even today the photographsand drawings that remained encourage to a recon-struction of the whole, for if we forget the relationsbetween architecture and place, the citizens enjoy-ment and the aim of progress amongst the crafts, wemight loose the idea of an Architecture that still re-mains as authentic, in its goal to figure out a culturefor a renewed society.

Kungsholmen and Barcelona/ June- October 2009.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:Jos Manuel Lpez-Pelez, who passed onto us his passionfor E.G. Asplunds work. To Bengt Egdman, always presentfor his precisions on S. L ewerentz at ILA&UD. To the Stock-holms Stadsarkiv and Arkitektur Museet personnel for theirgreat professional work and kindness. To A. Lindqvist forhospitality and great sympathy.Graphic sources are from Arkitektur Museet, StockholmsStadsarkiv and Wikipedia Commons. Some photographswere realized on site by the author.

FIGURES1A. Helsinborg Chapel1B. Helsingborg complex1C. Graveyard. Malm2A. Enskede process: 1916, 1915 topography2B. Tallum model2C. Access image, 1932

3A. Flora Hill, Adelcrantz3B. English Garden by Piper3C. Drottningholm Hill4A. 1930 Stockholm Exhibition4B. 1930 Expo official Image4C. Access and Corso5A. Entrance Pavilion5B. Access to 1930 Exhibition5C. Planetarium6A. Festival Square6B. The lagoon skyline by night7 A,B,C. Restaurant Paradise7 D, E. Park Restaurant

in Stuttgart, but not the overall complex or the col-laborators reasoning. We could even state that inthis connection the dissolution of the rationalist boxcould be founded, showing a transition to a ore or-ganic and fluid treatment of relations between insideand outside, between construction and urban con-text. The use of dynamic forms in such a context orelectric illumination was also natural for Lewerentz;he had a company of his own to that effect. And theorganic sense is quite evident, for few constructions(the annunciating pole or the reflector for the orches-tra) can be understood as separate objects; as a mat-

ter of fact, the best remembered feature of the Ex-hibition was the shared activity and joy.Masts and graphic indications were also present atMosse Pavilion by the same Mendelsohn or at thatby Hans Schumacher for the Exhibition Pressa atKln (1928), that show evident similarities with news-paper kiosks and the restaurant building by ErikBryggmann at Turku Fair (1929), and they might havesuggested to K. Frampton the constructivist connec-tion: It was purely and simply- a question of func-tional populism, and intermediate point between theThird Reich Heitmatstil and Stalin Socialist Real-ism24. Was it purely and simply so? Rather, theseterm s should be made clea r: Aspl und and Aal tocould well know the Soviet works, but the will to afestive celebration as generator was more power-ful as generator; in fact, Aalto criticized the absence

of connection between housing prototypes and therather poor resulting public space at the Hosing Sec-tion. Neither is relevant a supposed bolshevism ofboth masters, and G. Schildt recalls the punch giv-en by Aalto to Bertel Jung, when the latter calledthem prec isely thus . The facts operated in anotherdirection: some features of the new architecture,such as plane roofs, were treated by the Nazis withthat adjective, whilst Bertel Jung preferred classi-cal types for the bank offices he designed. Asplundand Aaltos internationalism was seen as anti-pa-triotic 25, and only thus some difficulties to come inthe career of Asplund can be understood.But the most precise connection in this respectcomes from Mendelshons varied travels: to UnitedStated in 1924, where he was to have a vivid experi-ence, later related (Amerika: Bilderbuch einesArchtekten), and the invitation to carry design a tex-tile factory in Leningrad, where he travelled in 1925and 1926. His impressions as European were dis-closed in 1929 (Russland, Europa, Amerika: Ein Ar-chitektonischer Querschnitt), reflecting upon the stateof technique and suggesting an escape away frompolarities: between these two poles of the humantask, Europe will be able to medi tate a return to theconscience of uniting its disintegrated members in-to a solid union 26. Facts answered few years later.Resuming, Modern Architecture was not transformed

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